Les maladies neurodégénératives regroupent un ensemble de neuropathologies qui se caractérisent par le dysfonctionnement progressif des neurones et leur perte irréversible au niveau du système nerveux central. Parmi ces maladies figure la maladie d’Alzheimer (MA) qui est une des conditions neurodégénératives la plus fréquente. Bien qu’aucune étiologie n’ait encore été identifiée, le vieillissement est par conséquent le principal facteur de risque de la MA. Grâce aux recherches réalisées sur le vieillissement, des caractéristiques de changements cellulaires et biochimiques, comme la sénescence cellulaire et l’inflammaging, ont été associées à ce phénomène. La sénescence cellulaire qui se définit par un état d’arrêt du cycle cellulaire pourrait aggraver une maladie neurodégénérative, entre autres par le biais de phénotypes sécrétoires associés à la sénescence. L’implication du proto-oncogène BMI1 dans la régulation du cycle cellulaire et la sénescence a été démontrée à travers son inhibition du locus INK4/ARF. De plus, une déficience en BMI1 a été rapportée dans des neurones de certains patients avec la MA, et elle est également associée à une neurodégénérescence précoce. Le complexe NF-κB participe à l’expression d’un large éventail de gènes de cytokines pro-inflammatoires impliquées dans les processus de l’inflammaging et de la sénescence cellulaire. Cependant, l’implication conjointe de BMI1 et de NF-κB dans les processus de neurodégénérescence demeure peu connue. Compte tenu de ce contexte, dans le cadre de ce projet de maitrise, nous avons voulu explorer l’implication conjointe des molécules BMI1 et de la voie canonique du facteur NF-κB dans la production de cytokines pro-inflammatoires en utilisant des modèles in vivo et in vitro reproduisant un phénotype de neurodégénérescence similaire à la maladie d’Alzheimer. Nos résultats indiquent qu’une déficience en BMI1 est corrélée à une inactivation du facteur NF-κB aussi bien dans des neurones in vitro qu’in vivo ainsi qu’a une baisse de l’expression des cytokines IL6 et IL8. Bien que nous présentions des résultats générés à partir d’expériences non dupliquées, ils convergent tout de même vers des conclusions similaires à celles obtenues au niveau de pathologies cancéreuses. Ainsi notre projet apporte une information additionnelle qui pourrait servir à la compréhension des mécanismes sous-jacents au phénomène de l’inflammaging dans la neurodégénérescence. / Neurodegenerative diseases are a group of neuropathologies characterized by the progressive dysfunction of neurons and their death in the central nervous system. Among these diseases, Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common one. Although no aetiology has yet been identified, aging is therefore the main risk factor for AD. Thanks to several research work on aging, cellular characteristics and biochemical changes, such as senescence and inflammaging, have been associated with this phenomenon. Senescence, which is defined as a state of cell cycle arrest, could worsen neurodegenerative diseases throughout senescence associated secretory phenotypes. The involvement of the proto-oncogene BMI1 in cell cycle regulation and senescence has been demonstrated through its inhibition of the INK4/ARF locus. Additionally, BMI1 deficiency has been reported in neurons of AD patients, and it is also associated with early neurodegeneration. The NF-κB complex participates in the expression of a wide range of pro-inflammatory cytokine involved in the processes of inflammaging and cellular senescence. However, little is known about the joint involvement of BMI1 and NF-κB molecules in neurodegeneration processes. Given this context, within the framework of this master's project, we wanted to explore the combined implication of BMI1 and the canonical pathway of the NF-κB factor in the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines using in vivo and in vitro models reproducing a neurodegenerative phenotype similar to Alzheimer's disease. Our results indicate that a deficiency in BMI1 is correlated to an inactivation of the NF-κB expression both in vitro and in vivo neurones, as well as with a decrease in the expression of cytokines IL6 and IL8. Although we present results generated from unduplicated experiments, they nonetheless converge towards similar conclusions obtained in studies carried out on cancerous pathologies. Thus, our project provides additional information that could help to understand the mechanisms underlying the inflammaging phenomena in neurodegeneration.

The dissertation deals with a cell response to genotoxic stress, specifically to anti-cancer treatments with a genotoxic mechanism of action. In principle, cells can respond to these perturbing stimuli in several ways: in case of severe DNA damage, they usually undergo apoptosis or enter senescence. In case of minor DNA damage, or upon defective checkpoint mechanisms, they may continue the cell cycle, either with successfully repaired DNA or with mutations of various kind. Thanks to selection pressure, the mutations that provide cells with a certain growth advantage under conditions of continuing genotoxic stress, gradually accumulate and render the tumor treatment-resistant. In my thesis, I focus on several aspects of this whole process. First, I participated in a characterization of a radioresistant and anoikis-resistant population of prostate cancer cells. This population was generated by irradiating cells 35 times by 2 Gy, a regime used in clinics. After this treatment, a population of low-adherent cells emerged that demonstrated increased expression of EMT- and stem cell markers. The low-adherent state of these cells was maintained by Snail signaling and their anoikis resistance by ERK1/2 signaling. Interestingly, after a protracted period of time, these cells were able to re-adhere and...

[ES] El envejecimiento se concibe como un proceso progresivo de deterioro funcional que se produce a lo largo de la vida. En general, el avance de la edad va acompañado del deterioro de múltiples tejidos, la alteración de la homeostasis y el aumento de la fragilidad. La edad se considera el principal factor de riesgo de un gran número de enfermedades con elevadas tasas de mortalidad, como las patologías cardiovasculares, el cáncer, la fibrosis pulmonar, la esteatosis hepática y los trastornos neurodegenerativos, entre otros. A medida que aumenta la población de edad avanzada, estas patologías son cada vez más frecuentes en nuestra sociedad y constituyen actualmente una de las principales preocupaciones sanitarias en atención primaria. Por consiguiente, comprender los mecanismos que causan el envejecimiento y el consiguiente deterioro de la salud es un reto importante para la comunidad científica, respaldado por un significativo interés socioeconómico. Alcanzar este objetivo permitiría realizar intervenciones específicas contra las enfermedades relacionadas con la edad, promover un envejecimiento saludable y prolongar la vida humana. En este contexto, la senescencia celular se ha convertido en un importante objetivo de investigación, ya que este destino celular se considera un factor que contribuye al deterioro funcional y estructural de los tejidos con el aumento de la edad, dando lugar a enfermedades crónicas. Los trastornos neurodegenerativos son en su mayoría de etiología desconocida, y en la actualidad sólo se dispone de tratamientos paliativos. La neurodegeneración puede deberse a la disminución de la neurogénesis que se produce con el envejecimiento. A este respecto, la vasculatura cerebral representa un componente esencial de los nichos neurogénicos, donde residen las células con capacidad para generar nuevas neuronas. Los microvasos cerebrales contribuyen sustancialmente a preservar la homeostasis y el potencial neurogénico de estas regiones, pero también experimentan cambios estructurales y funcionales con la edad. Sin embargo, aún no está claro si estas alteraciones están relacionadas con la senescencia celular. De ahí que el propósito de esta tesis sea profundizar en los entresijos de la senescencia relacionada con la edad y su impacto en el proceso de envejecimiento cerebral. En este sentido, hemos desarrollado una sonda fluorogénica para la detección in vivo de la actividad ß-Gal, un marcador ampliamente utilizado de senescencia celular. Hemos estimado la carga de células senescentes de forma no invasiva en estudios longitudinales utilizando esta sonda durante el envejecimiento natural y acelerado o durante tratamientos senolíticos. Estos resultados nos han permitido establecer una correlación real entre envejecimiento y senescencia. Por otro lado, hemos centrado nuestros esfuerzos en crear estrategias para detectar la senescencia en las células endoteliales cerebrales y estudiar sus efectos sobre la neurogénesis durante el envejecimiento. Los resultados mostraron que las células endoteliales senescentes a nivel cerebral tienen un impacto perjudicial sobre la neurogénesis y las células madre neurales, lo que sitúa a estas células como diana para futuros estudios sobre el envejecimiento cerebral. / [CA] L'envelliment es concep com un procés progressiu de deterioració funcional que es produeix al llarg de la vida. En general, l'avanç de l'edat va acompanyat de la deterioració de múltiples teixits, l'alteració de l'homeòstasi i l'augment de la fragilitat. L'edat es considera el principal factor de risc d'un gran nombre de malalties amb elevades taxes de mortalitat, com les patologies cardiovasculars, el càncer, la fibrosi pulmonar, la esteatosis hepàtica i els trastorns neurodegeneratius, entre altres. A mesura que augmenta la població d'edat avançada, aquestes patologies són cada vegada més freqüents en la nostra societat i constitueixen actualment les principals preocupacions sanitàries en atenció primària. Per consegüent, comprendre els mecanismes que causen l'envelliment i la consegüent deterioració de la salut és un repte important per a la comunitat científica, recolzat per un significatiu interés socioeconòmic. Aconseguir aquest objectiu permetria realitzar intervencions específiques contra les malalties relacionades amb l'edat, promoure un envelliment saludable i prolongar la vida humana. En aquest context, la senescència cel·lular s'ha convertit en un important objectiu d'investigació, ja que aquest destí cel·lular es considera un factor que contribueix a la deterioració funcional i estructural dels teixits amb l'augment de l'edat, donant lloc a malalties cròniques. Els trastorns neurodegeneratius són en la seua majoria d'etiologia desconeguda, i en l'actualitat només es disposa de tractaments pal·liatius. La neurodegeneración pot deure's a la disminució de la neurogènesi que es produeix amb l'envelliment. Referent a això, la vasculatura cerebral representa un component essencial dels nínxols neurogènics, on resideixen les cèl·lules amb capacitat per a generar noves neurones. Els microvasos cerebrals contribueixen substancialment a preservar l'homeòstasi i el potencial neurogènic d'aquestes regions, però també experimenten canvis estructurals i funcionals amb l'edat. No obstant això, encara no és clar si aquestes alteracions estan relacionades amb la senescència cel·lular. D'aquí ve que el propòsit d'aquesta tesi siga aprofundir en els secrets de la senescència relacionada amb l'edat i el seu impacte en el procés d'envelliment cerebral. En aquest sentit, hem desenvolupat una sonda fluorogénica per a la detecció in vivo de l'activitat ß-Gal, un marcador àmpliament utilitzat de senescència cel·lular. Hem estimat la càrrega de cèl·lules senescentes de forma no invasiva en estudis longitudinals utilitzant aquesta sonda durant l'envelliment natural i accelerat o durant tractaments senolíticos. Aquests resultats ens han permés establir una correlació real entre envelliment i senescència. D'altra banda, hem centrat els nostres esforços a crear estratègies per a detectar la senescència en les cèl·lules endotelials cerebrals i estudiar els seus efectes sobre la neurogènesi durant l'envelliment. Els resultats van mostrar que les cèl·lules endotelials *senescentes a nivell cerebral tenen un impacte perjudicial sobre la neurogènesi i les cèl·lules mare *neurales, la qual cosa situa a aquestes cèl·lules com a diana per a futurs estudis sobre l'envelliment cerebral. / [EN] Ageing is conceived as a progressive process of functional decline that occurs over the course of life. In general, advancing age is accompanied by the deterioration of multiple tissues, altered homeostasis and increased frailty. Age is considered to be the main risk factor for a large number of diseases with high mortality rates, such as cardiovascular pathologies, cancer, pulmonary fibrosis, hepatic steatosis, and neurodegenerative disorders, among others. As the elderly population grows, these pathologies are becoming increasingly prevalent in our society and are now the leading health concerns in primary care. Consequently, comprehending the mechanisms that cause ageing and resulting health decline is a major challenge for the scientific community, backed by significant socio-economic interest. Achieving this goal would allow for targeted interventions against age-related diseases, promote healthy ageing, and extend human lifespan. In this context, cellular senescence has emerged as an important research target, as this cellular fate is considered a contributing factor to the functional and structural deterioration of tissues with increasing age, leading to chronic diseases. Neurodegenerative disorders are mostly of unknown etiology, and only palliative treatments are currently available. Neurodegeneration may be prompted by the decline in neurogenesis that occurs with ageing. In this regard, the brain vasculature represents an essential component of the neurogenic niches, where cells with the capacity to generate new neurons reside. Brain microvessels contribute substantially to preserving the homeostasis and neurogenic potential of these regions, but they also undergo structural and functional changes with age. However, whether these alterations are linked to cellular senescence it is not yet clear. Hence, the purpose of this thesis is to delve deeper into the intricacies of age-related senescence and its impact on the process of brain ageing. In this regard, we have developed a fluorogenic probe for the in vivo detection of ß-Gal activity, a widely used marker of cellular senescence. We have estimated the senescent cell burden non-invasively in longitudinal studies using this probe during natural and accelerated ageing or during senolytic treatments. These results have allowed us to establish a real correlation between ageing and global senescence. On the other hand, we have focused our efforts on creating strategies to detect senescence in brain endothelial cells and to study its effects on neurogenesis during ageing. The results showed that senescent endothelial cells at the brain level have a detrimental impact on neurogenesis and neural stem cells, positioning these cells as a target for future studies on brain ageing. / This PhD thesis has been supported by a pre-doctoral scholarship from the Spanish Ministry of Universities, “Programa de Formación del Profesorado Universitario (FPU)”, and a technical expert contract funded by the European Commission. The research has been funded by the following research projects led by Ramón Mártinez Máñez: - Gobierno de España (RTI2018-100910-B-C41 and PID2021-126304OB-C41). - Generalitat Valenciana (PROMETEO 2018/024 and CIPROM/2021/007). - CIBER-BBN- Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (CB06/01/2012). And by the following research projects led by Isabel Fariñas: - 2014-2018. Estudio de células madre en el ámbito de las investigaciones básicas en terapia celular. Fundación Botín-Banco de Santander. - 2018-2021. Regulación del comportamiento de las células madre neurales por el medio sistémico: el nicho extendido. MINECO (SAF2017-86690-R). - 2016-ongoing. CIBER en Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED). ISCIII (Programa de Investigación Cooperativa, CB06/05/0086). - 2017-2021. Efectos directos y remotos de la respuesta inflamatoria sobre las células madre neurales. Generalitat Valenciana (Proyectos de Excelencia, PROMETEO/2017/030). - 2017-2021. RETIC de terapia celular ISCIII (RD16/0011/0017). - 2021-2024 Regulación molecular de la heterogeneidad celular en los nichos neurogénicos adultos MICINN (PID2020- 117937GB-I00). - 2021-2025. Una aproximación multidisciplinar al estudio de la respuesta al daño genómico en células madre neurales: de levadura a mamíferos y vuelta. Generalitat Valenciana. Programa Prometeo de Proyectos de Excelencia (PROMETEO/2021/028). / Rojas Vázquez, S. (2023). Impact of Brain Endothelial Senescence on Neurogenesis: Application of Novel Strategies for Age-Related Senescence Detection [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/194629

Boreal peatlands store carbon sequestered from the atmosphere over millennia and the importance of this and the other ecosystem services these areas provide is now widely recognised. However, a changing climate will affect these environments and, consequently, the services they provide to the global population. The rate and direction of environmental change to peatlands is currently unclear and they have not yet been included in many climate models. This may in part be due to the ecological heterogeneity and spatial extent of these areas and the sparse sampling survey methods currently adopted. Hyperspectral remote sensing from satellite platforms may in future offer an approach to surveying and do so at the high spectral and spatial resolutions necessary to infer ecological change in these peatlands. However, work is required to develop methods of analysis to determine if hyperspectral data can be used to measure the overstorey vegetation of these areas. This will require an understanding of how annual and inter-annual cyclical changes affect the peatland plant canopy reflectances that would be recorded by hyperspectral sensors and how these reflectances can be related to state variable of interest to climate scientists, ecologists and peatland managers. There are significant areas of peatland within Scotland and, as it is towards the southern extreme of the boreal peatlands, these may be an early indicator of environment change to the wider boreal region. Calluna vulgaris, a hardy dwarf shrub, is the dominant overstorey species over much of these peatlands and could serve as a proxy for ecological, and consequently, environmental change. However, little has been done to understand how variations in leaf pigments or canopy structural parameters influence the spectral reflectance of Calluna through annual and inter-annual growth and senescence cycles. Nor has much work been done to develop methods of analysis to enable images acquired by hyperspectral remote sensing to be utilised to monitor change to these Calluna dominated peatlands over time. To advance understanding of the optical properties of Calluna leaves and canopies and develop methods to analyse hyperspectral images laboratory, field and modelling studies have been carried out in time series over a number of years. The leaf and canopy parameters significantly affecting reflectance have been identified and quantified. Differences between published Chlorophyll(a+b) in vivo absorption spectra and those determined were found. Carotenoids and Anthocyanins were also identified and quantified. The absorption spectra of these pigments were incorporated into a canopy reflectance model and this was coupled to a Calluna growth model. This combined model enabled the reflectance of Calluna canopies to be modelled in daily increments through annual and inter-annual growth and senescence cycles. Reasonable results were achieved in spectral regions where reflectance changed systematically but only for homogeneous Calluna stands. However, it was noted during this research that the area of support for the spectral measurements appeared to differ from that assumed from the specification provided by the spectroradiometer manufacturers. The directional response functions (DRFs) of two spectroradiometers were investigated and wavelength, or wavelength region, specific spatial dependences were noted. The effect that the DRFs of the spectroradiometers would have on reflectances recorded from Calluna canopies was investigated through a modelling study. Errors and inaccuracies in the spectra that would be recorded from these canopies, and commonly used biochemical indices derived from them, have been quantified.

TRF1 est une protéine télomérique essentielle pour la stabilité et la régulation de la longueur des télomères. Son expression est altérée dans de nombreux cancers humains, et son inhibition, dans un contexte p53 déficient, favorise le développement de tumeurs chez la souris. Nous montrons ici que l'inhibition de TRF1 dans les fibroblastes primaires humains conduit à une accumulation télomérique de γ-H2AX et à une activation de la voie de réponse aux dommages de l'ADN dépendante des kinases ATR/Chk1, menant rapidement les cellules vers la sénescence. En revanche, lorsque les voies p53 et pRb sont défaillantes, les cellules échappent à la sénescence. L'érosion accrue des télomères engendre alors une fragilité télomérique et une instabilité chromosomique, caractérisées par la présence de fusions entres chromatides soeurs et de signaux multi-télomériques (MTS). Un niveau élevé de MTS, associés à la présence de télomères courts, est également retrouvé après la surexpression de TRF1. Cette fragilité télomérique conduit à une extension de la capacité proliférative des cellules, due à une stabilisation de la longueur des télomères par réactivation de la télomérase. Nous proposons que la fragilité des télomères, induit par l'altération de la charge télomérique de TRF1, conduit à une instabilité chromosomique qui facilite la réactivation de la télomérase et à des anomalies chromosomiques comparables à celles retrouvées dans les tumeurs. La dérégulation de l'expression de TRF1 joueraient un rôle dans la progression tumorale des cellules p53 et pRb déficientes. / TRF1 is a telomere-binding protein which is essential for both telomere stability and telomere length regulation. TRF1 depletion in the context of p53 deficiency promotes tumor development in the mouse, and TRF1 expression is altered in some human cancers. We report here that inhibition of TRF1 in human primary fibroblast results in rapid induction of senescence, which is concomitant with telomeric accumulation of γ-H2AX and phosphorylation of the ATR downstream checkpoint kinase Chk1. Abrogation of p53 and pRb pathways bypasses senescence but leads to accelerated telomere shortening and early onset of chromosomal instability, including sister chromatid fusions and the occurrence of multi-telomeric signals (MTS) related to telomere fragility. MTS are also elevated in TRF1-overexpressing cells and are coincident with the presence of short telomeres. Elevated telomere fragility was associated with greater immortalization potential and resultant cells maintained their telomeres via telomerase reactivation. We propose that changes in TRF1 occupancy at telomeres lead to telomere-fragility driven chromosome instability, which facilitates the reactivation of telomerase and engenders cancer-relevant chromosomal aberrations. These events would occur at early stages of the tumor progression process in the context of an impaired p53 and pRb response.

Sexually reproducing eukaryotes are typically going through a biphasic life cycle with a diploid and a haploid phase. Unlike in plants where selection on haploid pollen genotypes is well established, the possibility of selection occurring in animal sperm is currently not known. One of the main reasons for this lack of knowledge is the general assumption that due to the shortness and the apparent absence of gene expression in haploid sperm, selection during that phase is unlikely to occur. The aim of this thesis was to fill this gap and address some of the main fundamental questions. I investigated the interaction between sperm phenotype and offspring phenotype with a focus on the trans-generational effects of (i) selection on the haploid sperm genotype, (ii) sperm ageing and (iii) sperm-mediated epigenetic effects. For one, we performed several experimental studies to investigate how selection on the sperm phenotype affects offspring performance in two externally fertilizing fishes, Atlantic salmon and zebrafish. We found that in Atlantic salmon, sperm of intermediate post-activation longevity sire offspring that hatch earlier. In zebrafish, longer living sperm sire more viable offspring with a higher fitness than their short-lived sibling sperm. We explored the mechanisms of these trans-generational effects and found that neither intrinsic post-ejaculation sperm ageing (Atlantic salmon and zebrafish) nor pre-ejaculation sperm ageing (zebrafish) affect offspring performance. However, we identified genetic differences between sperm pools that were obtained by selecting different phenotypes within ejaculates of zebrafish males. These results suggest a genetic basis for intra-ejaculate sperm phenotype variation and show that there is potential for haploid selection in sperm. In a separate experiment, we explored the role of sexual selection in shaping sperm-mediated epigenetic effects, and found that short-time changes in male-male competition affect offspring hatching time and survival. In conclusion, this thesis provides evidence that sperm phenotype affects offspring phenotype, and that sperm phenotype is affected by both epigenetic changes influenced by the male environment and differences in the haploid genome of sperm.

Le facteur de transcription p53 joue un rôle crucial dans la suppression de tumeurs et dans la sénescence cellulaire. Selon la littérature, l’ARN messager de p53 contient deux sites d’entrée interne des ribosomes (IRES), un dans la région 5’ non-traduite et l’autre au début de la région codante. L’utilisation de ces IRES devrait activer la synthèse de p53 en conditions de stress, comme dans la sénescence. Notre but était d’identifier les éléments-clés qui contrôlent l’activité des IRES de p53 et d’étudier leur comportement dans la sénescence. Nous avons construit des vecteurs bicistroniques à deux luciférases contenant le gène de la Renilla (Rluc), traduit via le mécanisme classique coiffe-dépendant, une région intercistronique, contenant une des séquences IRES de p53, et le gène de la luciole (Fluc), dont la traduction dépend de cet IRES. L’activité IRES a été évaluée par le rapport des activités Fluc/Rluc dans des extraits cellulaires de HEK293T et de fibroblastes primaires humains. Nous avons inséré une structure précédant l’IRES évitant qu’une translecture ou une réinitiation de la traduction puisse conduire à la synthèse de Fluc. Nous avons vérifié l’absence de promoteur cryptique dans les IRES et nous avons construit des vecteurs contenant la séquence complémentaire inversée (SERI) des IRES. Nous avons observé que l’efficacité de traduction via les IRES de p53 ou les séquences SERI est semblable. De plus, la traduction de Fluc via les présumés IRES de p53 ne représente qu’environ 1% de la traduction de Fluc via une initiation coiffe-dépendante. L’activité des prétendus IRES ne semble pas augmenter en conditions de sénescence. Enfin, nous avons introduit une région structurée dans la région 5’UTR du messager bicistronique. Cette structure a bloqué la traduction coiffe-dépendante mais aussi la traduction IRES-dépendante. L’ensemble de nos résultats nous conduit à affirmer que l’ARN messager de p53 ne contient pas d’IRES et nous suggérons que la faible activité Fluc observée résulterait d’un épissage cryptique conduisant à l’apparition d’un messager dont la traduction génère une portion de Rluc fusionnée à Fluc. Nos résultats sont en accord avec des données rapportées dans la littérature démontrant que l’existence de la plupart des IRES cellulaires est contestée. Un ensemble de contrôles rigoureux doit être appliqué à l’étude de tout IRES présumé avant d’affirmer son existence. Le système à deux luciférases, considéré comme le modèle de choix pour l’étude des IRES, peut en fait révéler diverses anomalies de l’expression des gènes. / p53 is a transcription factor that plays a crucial role in tumor suppression and cellular senescence. According to the literature, the p53 mRNA contains two internal ribosome entry sites (IRES), one in the 5’ untranslated region and the other one at the beginning of the coding region. The two IRES should enable the synthesis of p53 to occur under stress conditions, such as senescence. The aim of our study was to identify the key elements that control the activity of the two p53 IRES and to study their behavior in senescence. We constructed two dicistronic vectors containing the Renilla luciferase gene (Rluc), which is translated in a classical cap-dependent manner, an intercistronic region containing one of the two IRESs sequences of p53, and the firefly luciferase gene (Fluc), whose translation depends on the IRES in the intercistronic region. The IRES activity was assessed by the ratio between the two luciferase activities (Fluc/Rluc) in cell extracts from HEK293T and primary human fibroblasts. We also inserted a structure preceding the IRES sequence that prevented readthrough or translation reinitiation, which could lead to Fluc synthesis. We verified the absence of cryptic promoter in the two IRES sequences. We also constructed vectors containing the reverse complement region of each of the two p53 IRES (called SERI). We found that the efficiency of translation of Fluc via IRES sequences or via SERI sequences is similar. In addition, the level of Fluc translated via the presumed p53 IRES represents only 1% of the level of Fluc translated in a cap-dependent manner. The activities of so-called IRES of the p53 messenger do not increase in senescent human fibroblasts. Finally, the introduction of a structured region in the 5'UTR of the dicistronic messenger repressed not only the cap-dependent translation of Rluc but also the IRES-dependent translation of Fluc. Our results lead us to conclude that the p53 messenger does not contain any IRES and suggest that the low Fluc activity observed results from a cryptic splicing producing a messenger whose translation generates a portion of Rluc fused to Fluc. Our results are consistent with data reported in the literature showing that the existence of most cellular IRES is disputed. A set of stringent controls must be applied to the study of any presumed IRES before asserting its existence. The two-luciferase reporter, considered as the model of choice for studying IRES-translation, can in fact reveal various abnormalities of gene expression.

Many primate populations face the threat of extinction due to habitat loss, intensive agriculture, hunting for meat, the pet trade and/or use in traditional medicines. An alternative approach to in situ conservation includes gene banking and the use of assisted reproductive technologies (ART), such as oocyte in vitro maturation (IVM) and in vitro fertilization (IVF). Although many of these 'high-tech' solutions have not yet been proven viable for pragmatic wildlife conservation, basic research and development of these emerging tools can provide necessary information needed to optimize these techniques and institute ART as a routine practice in conservation efforts. A severely limiting factor in the successful application of ARTs is the availability of mature developmentally competent oocytes. Oocyte maturation involves many nuclear and cytoplasmic factors, which can be affected by maturation conditions and female age. In vitro maturation does not have the same success rate across species studied. In primates especially, IVM oocytes exhibit reduced developmental capacity upon fertilization when compared to in vivo matured (IVO) oocytes. This study aimed to investigate possible causes of reduced developmental capacity of primate IVM oocytes using the rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) as a model. Research efforts included investigation of ovarian senescence, oocyte karyotype and spindle morphology, and establishment of an optimal sperm cryopreservation protocol for use in IVF. Histological examination of the rhesus ovary demonstrated an age-related pattern of follicle depletion similar to that described in the human ovary. Oocyte karyotype analysis revealed a significant effect of IVM on the frequency of hyperhaploidy. In addition, immunostaining and confocal microscopy demonstrated a significant increase of anomalous chromosome congression on the oocyte metaphase II spindle equator in relation to IVM and donor female age. These results indicate that IVM can produce serious, if not lethal consequences for embryo development. This study presents baseline data on ovarian aging in the rhesus macaque and aspects of nuclear maturation during macaque IVM that may contribute to the design of primate oocyte recovery plans. Implementation of either of two sperm cryopreservation methods originally developed for rhesus and vervet monkeys will aid future investigation of the developmental capacity of IVM oocytes.

Autumn senescence is a visually spectacular phenomenon in which trees prepare for the oncoming winter. The mechanism for regulation of autumn senescence in trees has been very hard to pinpoint. In this thesis the main focus is to investigate how autumn senescence is regulated in aspens (Populus tremula). Previous work has established that autumn senescence in aspens is under daylight control, in this thesis the metabolic status and the effect on autumn senescence was investigated. The metabolic status was altered by girdling which leads to accumulation of photosynthates in the canopy. This resulted in an earlier onset of senescence but also the speed of senescence was changed. At the onset of senescence the girdled trees also accumulated or retained anthocyanins. The nitrogen status of aspens during autumn senescence was also investigated, we found that high doses of fertilization could significantly delay the onset of senescence. The effects of various nitrogen forms was investigated by delivering organic and inorganic nitrogen through a precision fertilization delivery system that could inject solutes directly into the xylem of the mature aspens. The study showed that addition of nitrate delayed senescence, addition of arginine did not have any effect on the autumn senescence in aspens, and furthermore the nitrate altered the trees leaf metabolism that was more profound in high dosages of supplied nitrate.  Cytokinins are plant hormones believed to delay or block senescence, studies have suggested that the decrease of cytokinins and/or cytokinin signalling may precede senescence in some plants. To investigate how cytokinin regulates autumn senescence in aspens we profiled 34 cytokinin types in a free growing mature aspen. The study begun before autumn senescence was initiated and ended with the shedding of the leaves, and spanned three consecutive years. The study showed that the individual cytokinin profiles varied significantly between the years, this despite that senescence was initiated at the same time each year. Senescence was furthermore not connected to the depletion of either active or total cytokinins levels. The gene pattern of genes known to be associated with cytokinin was also studied, but no gene expression pattern that the profile generated could explain the onset of senescence. These results suggest that the depletion of cytokinins is unlikely to explain the tightly regulated onset of autumn leaf senescence in aspen.

La sénescence induite par chimiothérapie permet l’arrêt pérenne de la division des cellules tumorales. Néanmoins, ce mécanisme de suppression tumorale peut être neutralisé par certaines cellules traitées, ce qui se traduit généralement par une rechute des patients. Récemment, nous avons décrit dans des cellules colorectales un mécanisme d’échappement à la sénescence induite par le SN-38 dépendant de la protéine de survie MCL1. Cette étude montre que les cellules sénescentes (PLS) favorisent la prolifération des cellules non-sénescentes (PLD) par l’intermédiaire de signaux mitogéniques activant la kinase Cdk4 et par conséquent la reprise de la division. Nous démontrons que Cdk4 inhibe Rb par phosphorylation de la sérine 780, permettant l’activation des fonctions transcriptionnelles des facteurs E2F sur les gènes du cycle cellulaire. La perte d’activité de Cdk4 par ARN interférence ou par le Palbociclib réduit l’émergence de clones proliférants. La méthyltransférase EZH2 est une cible de E2F exclusivement exprimée par les PLD et son expression dépend de l’activité de Cdk4. Par ailleurs, l’utilisation d’ARN interférence dirigé contre EZH2 ou des inhibiteurs chimiques DNZepA et GSK343 réduit également l’émergence de clones proliférants. Enfin, son inhibition potentialise à la fois l’arrêt de la division et la sénescence en réponse au Palbociclib dans les cellules ayant échappé au SN-38. Ainsi, ces travaux ont permis de mettre en évidence un rôle important de EZH2 en tant qu’effecteur de Cdk4 dans le mécanisme d’échappement au SN-38, une voie susceptible d’apporter des nouvelles cibles thérapeutiques dans le traitement du cancer. / Chemotherapy-induced senescence enables to trigger a durable division arrest of tumor cells. However, this tumor suppressor mechanism is neutralized in some treated cells leading mostly to cancer relapse in patients. Recently, we have described a MCL1-dependent mechanism of escape in SN-38-induced senescence from colorectal cell lines. In this study, we showed that senescent cells (PLS cells) promoted the non senescent cells (PLD cells) proliferation through mitogenic signals stimulating Cdk4 kinase activity and subsequently the cell cycle. We demonstrated that Cdk4 phosphorylated Rb on the serine 780 to inhibit its activity, allowing E2F- family transcriptional functions activation on cell cycle targets. Loss of Cdk4 expression or activity induced by RNA interference or Palbociclib reduced the emergence of proliferating clones. TheEZH2-methyltransferase, a E2F transcriptional target, is only expressed by PLD cells and this expression depends on Cdk4 activity. Moreover, loss of EZH2 expression or activity, by RNA interference or by DZNepA and GSK343 inhibitors, reduced the emergence of proliferating cells. Finally, EZH2 inhibition promotes both cell division arrest and senescence in response to Palbociclibin the SN-38-escaped cells. To conclude, this study enabled to highlight a major role of EZH2 as effector of Cdk4 in the escape mechanism induced by SN-38 a signaling pathway offering newtargeted cancer therapies.