Students entering academic programmes are frequently overwhelmed by the demand for extensive reading and comprehension of information derived from multiple and contrasting sources. This entails both careful and expeditious reading. The latter has been generally neglected in research and has not been the focus of many tests. Both types of reading were investigated in this study through a validation process of the summative English reading test for academic purposes taken at the end of the Foundation Programme in Oman. In particular, context validity was established through focusing on the interaction between the linguistic demands and task setting parameters and also the cognitive processes through which the students engaged with the test tasks. To establish the context validity of the test, this study adopted Khalifa and Weir’s (2009) model which not only embraced the complex and multi-componential nature of reading but also provided a workable validation framework. A multi-strategy approach was adopted. A natural experiment utilising Verbal Protocol Analysis captured the cognitive processes through which students engaged in reading. Automated analysis software and opinions of expert judges were used to compare test passages with text extracts drawn from first year academic courses. Correlation tests and factor analysis revealed these cognitive processes and established the robustness of the Khalifa and Weir (2009) model, which was thus validated in a second language context. Passages in the foundation tests were found to be generally representative of academic texts although certain features such as abstractness were under-represented.

This thesis presents the results of a combined magnetic fabric and palaeomagnetic analysis of lower crustal rocks exposed in the Oman (Semail) ophiolite. This has long been an important natural laboratory for understanding the construction of oceanic crust at fast spreading axes and its subsequent tectonic evolution, but magnetic investigations in the ophiolite have been limited. Analyses presented here involve using: (i) magnetic anisotropies as a proxy for magmatic petrofabrics in lower crustal rocks in order to contribute to outstanding questions regarding the mode of accretion of fast-spread oceanic crust; and (ii) classical palaeomagnetic analyses to determine the nature of magnetization in these rocks and gain further insights into the regional-scale pattern of tectonic rotations that have affected the ophiolite. The extensive layered gabbro sequences exposed in the Semail ophiolite have been sampled at a number of key localities. These are shown to have AMS fabrics that are layer-parallel but also have a regional-scale consistency of the orientation of maximum anisotropy axes. This consistency across sites separated by up to 100 km indicates large-scale controls on fabric development and may be due to consistent magmatic flow associated with the spreading system or the influence of plate-scale motions on deformation of crystal mushes emplaced in the lower crust. Detailed analysis of fabrics in a single layer and across the sampled sections are consistent with either magmatic flow during emplacement of a melt layer into a lower crustal sill complex, or traction/drag of such layers in response to regional-scale stresses (e.g. mantle drag). Together, results support formation of the layered gabbros by injection of melt into sill complexes in the lower crust. New anisotropy data from the overlying foliated gabbros sampled at two key localities also provide insights into the style of melt migration at this crustal level. Fabrics are consistent with either focused or anastomosing magmatic upwards flow through this layer, reflecting melt migration beneath a fossil axial melt lens. Previous palaeomagnetic research in lavas of the northern ophiolitic blocks has demonstrated substantial clockwise intraoceanic tectonic rotations. Palaeomagnetic data from lower crustal sequences in the southern blocks, however, have been more equivocal due to complications arising from remagnetization. Systematic sampling resolves for the first time a pattern of remagnetized lowermost gabbros and retention of earlier magnetizations by uppermost gabbros and the overlying dyke-rooting zone. Results are supported by a positive fold test that shows that remagnetization of lower gabbros occurred prior to Campanian structural disruption of the Moho. NW-directed remagnetized remanences in the lower units are consistent with those used previously to infer lack of significant rotation of the southern blocks. In contrast, E/ENE-directed remanences in the uppermost gabbros imply a large, clockwise rotation of the southern blocks, of a sense and magnitude consistent with that inferred from extrusive sections in the northern blocks. Hence, without the control provided by systematic crustal sampling, the potential for different remanence directions being acquired at different times may lead to erroneous tectonic interpretation.

The study’s primary research interest is in the area of leadership and creativity. Investigating the literature indicates that there is a gap in knowledge regarding the effect of the Full Range of Leadership styles, especially the influence of transformational leadership on employees’ creative performance. Examining this relationship in different sectors (for example: public government sector); in different cultures (for example: Arab Islamic culture); and from multi-perspectives (for example: leaders and employees) is strongly encouraged by research. The Omani civil service sector was used as a case study, thus the aim of the study was to investigate the degree to which Omani civil service managers practised the Full Range of Leadership styles to influence employees’ creative performance. The study set six objectives which provided the foundation for the structure of the study and the way its research questions were formulated. Accordingly, the study methodology was designed in a way that points towards the achievement of the study objectives. The study adopted a mixed-methods research approach by combining survey questionnaires with semi-structured interviews. This triangulation technique was utilized to enable more accurate investigation and allow in-depth coverage of the issues examined. The probability sampling method as represented by the random sampling technique was adopted for this study and applied to the two groups of managers and employees. The total size of the managers’ sample was 269 participants, while the employees’ sample was 371 participants. In addition, 15 semi-structured interviews were conducted to supplement the quantitative results. The results of this study show that the Omani managers are performing both transformational and transactional leadership styles. Examining the relationship, the study confirms that there is an overall statistically significant relationship between managers’ use of transformational and transactional leadership styles and employees’ creative performance from both managers’ and employees’ perspectives. The results also reveal that Omani managers are infrequently practicing passive/avoidant leadership style and that this style does not contribute to the employees’ creative performance. Further, the study demonstrate that Omani managers’ personal characteristics have a slight effect on managers’ perceptions towards transformational leadership styles and do not have any impact on their perceptions toward employees’ creative performance. Finally, this study contributed to knowledge in several areas where scholars who are interested in investigating the relationship between leadership and creativity will find it valuable.

Depuis la découverte dans les années 1970 des premiers vestiges du IIème millénaire av. J.-C., cette période est considérée comme une phase d’effondrement des cultures préhistoriques de la péninsule omanaise. Appelés « période Wadi Suq » les trois premiers quarts du IIème millénaire av. J.-C. sont encore bien souvent perçus comme une période de Dark Ages faisant suite à la disparition de la culture Umm an-Nar du IIIème millénaire av. J.-C. Cette période se caractériserait par une diminution de la population, un abandon des sites et le retour à un mode de vie nomade. Pourtant les fouilles menées depuis une trentaine d’années, aussi bien dans les oasis du nord que le long du littoral au sud-est de la péninsule, ont livré les témoignages d’une culture plus complexe et sans doute moins hétéroclite qu’on ne l’envisage habituellement. Ces nouvelles données nous invitent à nuancer l’hypothèse d’un profond bouleversement entre les IIIème et IIème millénaires, de sorte qu’il est aujourd’hui nécessaire d’opérer une synthèse des connaissances sur la période afin de proposer de nouvelles approches des changements à la fois économiques, politiques et sociaux, survenus au cours du Bronze moyen et récent. / Since the discovery in the 1970s of the first remains of the second millennium BC, this period has been considered a collapse phase of the prehistoric cultures of the Oman peninsula. Called “Wadi Suq period” the first three quarts of the second millennium BC are still often seen as a period of Dark Ages following the disappearance of the Umm an-Nar culture of the 3rd millenium BC. This period has been characterized by a decline in the population, the sites abandonment and a return to a nomadic lifestyle. Yet, excavations conducte dover the last thirty years, both in the oases of the north and along the southeast coast of the peninsula, have yielded evidence of a more complex culture and probably less heterogeneous than it is usually envisaged. These new data invite us to reine the hypothesis of a major upheaval between the 3rd and the 2nd millennia BC, so it is now necessary to make a synthesis of current knowledge about the period in order to propose new approaches to economic, political and social changes that occurred during the Middle and Late Bronze Age.

This thesis explores the environmental and social responsibilities being increasingly shouldered by cement manufacturing sector and outlines a new approach for these companies to accept their responsibilities and to utilise professional approaches to address the economic, environmental and social dimensions of sustainable business. Managing these three dimensions in business translates corporate responsibility into an integrated responsibility for doing business profitably, ethically and in sustainable manner. This three-pronged approach is sometimes called the Triple Bottom Line. It helps companies to fulfil their more holistic Corporate Social Responsibility. A critical review of the literature led the thesis author to develop the theoretical framework for environmental and social reporting to proceed on TBL/CSR journey within the cement industry. Data were collected from TBL/CSR reports from cement companies on key environmental and social performances. Based upon those data, a questionnaire was developed to obtain more information from the leading worldwide cement companies. The combined results of the responses to the questionnaire and the quantitative data derived from the TBL/CSR reports were used to establish best practice benchmarks to serve as performance targets for the author¿s case study company, Oman Cement Company (OCC). The contribution to knowledge of this research is the summarisation and prioritisation of the cement industry¿s implementation of TBL/CSR management systems, which integrate the elements of TBL/CSR into their strategic plans and daily operational procedures. Guidelines were derived from the Global Reporting Initiative, the United Nations Global Compact and the new ISO 26000 standard, which promotes a new way of working towards innovation, value creation and incremental actions for transforming businesses to become more responsible. The contributions to practice of this research are the practical and procedural insights, gained by quantitative analysis of environmental and social indicators, into how cement companies are making improvements in their processes and products in response to climate change, economic, governmental regulations and social pressures for improvement. Based upon the findings, recommendations and timetables were developed and are being implemented within the OCC as it progresses on its TBL/CSR journey.

Students entering academic programmes are frequently overwhelmed by the demand for extensive reading and comprehension of information derived from multiple and contrasting sources. This entails both careful and expeditious reading. The latter has been generally neglected in research and has not been the focus of many tests. Both types of reading were investigated in this study through a validation process of the summative English reading test for academic purposes taken at the end of the Foundation Programme in Oman. In particular, context validity was established through focusing on the interaction between the linguistic demands and task setting parameters and also the cognitive processes through which the students engaged with the test tasks. To establish the context validity of the test, this study adopted Khalifa and Weir’s (2009) model which not only embraced the complex and multi-componential nature of reading but also provided a workable validation framework. A multi-strategy approach was adopted. A natural experiment utilising Verbal Protocol Analysis captured the cognitive processes through which students engaged in reading. Automated analysis software and opinions of expert judges were used to compare test passages with text extracts drawn from first year academic courses. Correlation tests and factor analysis revealed these cognitive processes and established the robustness of the Khalifa and Weir (2009) model, which was thus validated in a second language context. Passages in the foundation tests were found to be generally representative of academic texts although certain features such as abstractness were under-represented. / Government of the Sultanate of Oman, represented by the Ministry of Manpower

Les six pays qui forment le Conseil de Coopération du Golfe (CCG) disposent encore collectivement de vastes réserves de pétrole et de gaz. Mais pour combien de temps ? Arabie Saoudite, Bahreïn, Émirats Arabes Unis, Koweït, Oman et Qatar n’ont pendant longtemps imposé que les sociétés pétrolières étrangères. Conscients de la limite de la manne pétrolière, ils cherchent depuis plusieurs années à diversifier leur assise économique en attirant toujours plus d'investissements directs étrangers, autres que pétroliers. Un droit fiscal commun, applicable aux activités commerciales et industrielles des entreprises étrangères, a ainsi vu le jour en Arabie Saoudite, au Koweït, en Oman et au Qatar. Ce régime fiscal se distingue à la fois par de faibles taux d’imposition et par le renforcement permanent des moyens de recouvrement et de contrôle des opérations internationales des entreprises étrangères. Les entreprises françaises qui opèrent dans cette région bénéficient toujours, en application des conventions contre la double imposition, d’une suppression des retenues à la source sur leurs revenus issus des pays du CCG. C’est un avantage fiscal considérable par rapport à leurs homologues domiciliées dans d'autres pays occidentaux. Mais aujourd’hui, les sociétés françaises doivent faire face à une politique fiscale plus « agressive ». Elles sont confrontées à des systèmes fiscaux attractifs mais évolutifs, très diversifiés et de plus en plus coercitifs. / The six Arab states of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) still hold collectively vast reserves of oil and gas. But for how much longer? Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, Oman and Qatar have for a long time taxed only foreign oil companies. Aware of the limits of the oil godsend, these countries are currently seeking to diversify their economic basis by drawing in ever more foreign direct investment outside of the fossil fuel sector. New taxation laws applicable to foreign commercial and industrial activities have therefore been enacted in Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Oman and Qatar. These laws share two main characteristics: low tax rates and strengthened measures to collect taxes and control the international operations of foreign companies. Under double taxation treaties, French companies operating in that region still enjoy exemption from withholding tax on their GCC revenue. That is a considerable advantage compared to their counterparts based in other Western countries. Yet French companies must now encounter an "aggressive" fiscal policy. They are confronted with attractive fiscal systems but constantly changing, diverse and coercive.

This thesis presents a novel analytical solution strategy for the zero-inertia (ZI) equations of free surface flow. These equations are utilized herein for routing flood flow in open channels and for simulating excess rainfall runoff on overland planes. The novel solution approach is shown to be both accurate and robust, especially under the complicated and intricate conditions of infiltrating flow on initially dry river beds or soils, e.g., as present in arid and semiarid areas. This is underlain by comparing modeling results of the novel analytical procedure with those of validated numerical solutions. Furthermore, it is shown that the analytical ZI model can deliver a process-oriented portrayal of runoff concentration in the flood-generating parts of the catchment. Subsequently, the novel analytical ZI model is applied for a real-world water management problem in the Sultanate of Oman, Arabian Peninsula. Within an integrated flash flood routing model—which is also presented in this thesis—the novel analytical routing approach helps in accurately matching the dynamics of advancing and infiltrating ephemeral river flow, established as a consequence of release from a groundwater recharge dam. The integrated modeling system houses the aforementioned analytical downstream model and tailor-made, state-of-the-art modeling components to portray the upstream flow processes, dam operation (including evaporation), and spillway release flow. The proposed modeling system can aid in rendering a realistic image of transient transmission losses and dependent flow dynamics. This is of extremely high importance for water resources assessment, as well as for optimizing recharge dam operation strategies in order to maximize downstream transmission losses and, thus, groundwater recharge. / Diese Dissertation präsentiert einen neuartigen analytischen Lösungsansatz für das beschleunigungsfreie Wellenmodell (bzw. „Zero-Inertia-Modell“, „ZI-Modell“, oder „diffusives Wellenmodell“). Im Rahmen der Arbeit wird das hergeleitete hydrodynamische Modell sowohl zur Simulation von Freispiegelabflüssen in nichtprismatischen und durchlässigen Gerinnen, als auch für die Beschreibung von auf der Landoberfläche abfließendem Infiltrationsüberschuss eingesetzt. Es wird gezeigt, dass der neuartige analytische Ansatz — im Hinblick auf Massenerhaltung und die exakte Abbildung der Abflussdynamik — akkurate Ergebnisse liefert und gleichzeitig unter komplexen und verwickelten Prozessbedingungen anwendbar ist. So belegt eine vergleichende Analyse mit validierten numerischen Lösungsansätzen die Robustheit des analytischen ZI-Modells. Insbesondere die im Sinne der numerischen Mathematik stabile und genaue Modellierung der gekoppelten Abfluss- und Infiltrationsvorgänge in anfänglich trockenen Gerinnen ist dabei ein Novum. Weiterhin wird die Eignung und Anwendbarkeit des neuartigen Modellansatzes zur Beschreibung der Abflusskonzentrationsprozesse gezeigt. Der neuartige Lösungsansatz wird im Folgenden für ein reales Wassermanagementproblem im Sultanat Oman, Arabische Halbinsel eingesetzt. Als Bestandteil eines integrierten Modellsystems, welches ebenfalls im Rahmen der Dissertation vorgestellt wird, dient das analytische ZI-Modell zur Simulation von infiltrierendem Wadiabfluss, welcher unterstrom von Grundwasseranreicherungsdämmen starke Verluste von Masse und Impuls erfährt. Zusammen mit maßgeschneiderten und dem Stand der Technik entsprechenden Komponenten für die Betriebssimulation des Anreicherungsdammes (inklusive Verdunstung von der freien Seefläche) sowie für die Abbildung der oberstromigen hydrodynamischen Prozesse (ebenfalls inklusive Infiltration) wird der neuartige analytische Ansatz in einem Modellsystem zusammengefasst. Das Modellsystem ist in der Lage ein realistisches Bild der raumzeitlichen Dynamik des Abflusses sowie der Grundwasserneubildung aus infiltrierendem Wadiabfluss zu liefern. Damit stellt das Modellsystem ein wertvolles Werkzeug sowohl zur Wasserdargebotsermittlung, als auch für die Optimierung des Betriebes von Grundwasseranreicherungsdämmen dar.

In arid regions, mountain catchments are the major contributor to the total natural water yield. Due to generally low groundwater tables, subsurface underflow - referred to as mountain-front recharge - is important in distinction to the surface runoff at the mountain front. The extent of the groundwater basin is hereby often vague. Approaches to assess mountain-front recharge are mostly based on groundwater data and integrate over time and space. This, however, cannot provide prognostic and time-dependent estimates of subsurface inflow to the adjacent alluvial basin aquifer. Consequently, the proposed strategy builds on rainfall based approaches. Temporal and spatial resolution is in this case mostly limited by data scarcity regarding hydrological characteristics of the catchment area and high-resolution rainfall data. The proposed novel strategy combines three approaches to tackle these challenges. A newly developed conceptual hydrologic model provides time-dependent estimates based on fully distributed monthly rainfall. For distinct response units and seasons, non-linear relationships between rainfall and recharge describe the hydrogeologic response. The derivation of the response functions is based on a mass balance and considers the principal recharge mechanisms. Parameterisation makes use of available expert knowledge on geomorphology and seasonal rainfall characteristics. As an efficient tool to assess uncertainties, fuzzy arithmetic is used for complementary long-term average water balance estimates. This technique allows considering fuzziness in rainfall input, crop water use in mountain oases, and best available assumptions on recharge as portion of rainfall. Uncertainty regarding the potential, albeit unknown extent of groundwater basins is portrayed based on continuous surfaces which represent the degree of membership to a distinct geographical entity (termed as fuzzy regions). Distinct subsets of these fuzzy regions represent potential groundwater basins for water balance assessment. The proposed strategy was applied on the large scale in an arid karst mountain range in northern Oman. The two complementary assessment approaches result in similar ranges of values. They are in good agreement with inversely computed inflow to a steady state groundwater model for the adjacent basin aquifer. The results of the conceptual hydrologic model are confirmed by the plausibility of average recharge rates for distinct response units and seasons. This shows that less intense winter rainfall contributes mainly to groundwater recharge. Uncertainties due to the vague extent of the groundwater basin are about 30 % of the total mean annual value. An option to mitigate this uncertainty is the complementary consideration of adjacent aquifer systems in future studies. Hydrogeologic survey and observation of groundwater levels in the alluvial basin aquifer in near distance to the mountains is a way to underpin these findings in future studies. This recommenddation applies not only to the discussed study area, but also to mountain block systems in general. / In ariden Gebieten haben Gebirgseinzugsgebiete einen wesentlichen Anteil am gesamten natürlichen Wasserdargebot. Aufgrund i. Allg. tief liegender Grundwasserspiegel ist - in Abgrenzung zum Oberflächenabfluss am Gebirgsrand - auch der unterirdische Abstrom (mountain-front recharge) von besonderer Bedeutung. Die Ausdehnung des unterirdischen Einzugsgebiets ist dabei oft vage. Ansätze zur Abschätzung des mountain-front recharge basieren meist auf Grundwasserdaten und integrieren in Zeit und Raum. Damit können allerdings keine prognostischen oder zeitabhängigen Schätzungen für den Zustrom zur benachbarten alluvialen Aquifer gemacht werden. Daher wird im folgenden ein niederschlagsbasierter Ansatz vorgeschlagen. Das vorgeschlagene neue Konzept kombiniert drei Ansätze, um den genannten Herausforderungen zu begegnen. Mit einem neu entwickelten konzeptionellen hydrologischen Modell auf Basis verteilter Niederschläge werden monatliche Werte für die Grundwasserneubildung bereitgestellt. Es basiert auf nicht-linearen Beziehungen zwischen Niederschlag und Grundwasserneubildung für definierte hydrologisch homogene Einheiten und Jahreszeiten. Deren Ableitung basiert auf einer Massenbilanz und berücksichtigt die wesentlichen Neubildungsmechanismen. Die Parametrisierung basiert auf Expertenwissen zu Geomorphologie und Niederschlagscharakteristika. Fuzzy Arithmetik wird zur Berücksichtigung von Unsicherheiten in einer ergänzenden mittleren jährlichen Wasserbilanz verwendet. Damit können Unschärfen im Niederschlagsinput, beim Pflanzenwasserbedarf in Gebirgsoasen und best verfügbaren Schätzungen der Neubildung als Bruchteil des Niederschlags effizient berücksichtigt werden. Mittels kontinuierlicher Oberflächen, die den Grad der Zugehörigkeit zu einer bestimmten geographischen Entität anzeigen (fuzzy regions) werden Unsicherheiten in der räumlichen Ausdehnung der unterirdischen Einzugsgebiete beschrieben. Definierte Teilmengen dieser fuzzy regions werden dann bei den Wasserhaushaltsbetrachtungen als potentielle Grundwassereinzugsgebiete verwendet. Der vorgeschlagene Ansatz wurde in einer ariden, teils verkarsteten Gebirgsregion im Norden des Sultanats Oman angewendet. Die beiden sich ergänzenden Ansätze zur Abschätzung der Grundwasserneubildung ergaben im langjährigen Mittel vergleichbare Werte. Diese stimmten auch gut mit den Ergebnissen einer inversen Grundwassermodellierung überein. Die Plausibilität der Neubildungsraten für bestimmte hydrologisch homogene Einheiten und Jahreszeiten spricht für die Verlässlichkeit der Ergebnisse des konzeptionellen hydrologischen Modells. Offensichtlich tragen insbesondere die weniger intensiven Winterniederschläge wesentlich zur Grundwasserneubildung bei. Die Unsicherheiten bezüglich der Ausdehnung des Grundwassereinzugsgebiets belaufen sich auf ca. 30 % des mittleren jährlichen Dargebots. Die komplementäre Betrachtung benachbarter Grundwassereinzugsgebiete ist ein denkbarer Weg, diese Unsicherheit in Zukunft zu reduzieren. Ein wesentlicher Beitrag um die Ergebnisse dieser Studie zukünftig weiter zu untermauern wären hydrogeologische Erkundung und Beobachtung von Grundwasserständen im alluvialen Aquifer, insbesondere nahe dem Gebirgsrand. Diese Empfehlung gilt über dieses Fallbeispiel hinaus für vergleichbare Systeme, in denen ein Gebirgseinzugsgebiet den Aquifer in der angrenzende Ebene speist.

In arid regions, mountain catchments are the major contributor to the total natural water yield. Due to generally low groundwater tables, subsurface underflow - referred to as mountain-front recharge - is important in distinction to the surface runoff at the mountain front. The extent of the groundwater basin is hereby often vague. Approaches to assess mountain-front recharge are mostly based on groundwater data and integrate over time and space. This, however, cannot provide prognostic and time-dependent estimates of subsurface inflow to the adjacent alluvial basin aquifer. Consequently, the proposed strategy builds on rainfall based approaches. Temporal and spatial resolution is in this case mostly limited by data scarcity regarding hydrological characteristics of the catchment area and high-resolution rainfall data. The proposed novel strategy combines three approaches to tackle these challenges. A newly developed conceptual hydrologic model provides time-dependent estimates based on fully distributed monthly rainfall. For distinct response units and seasons, non-linear relationships between rainfall and recharge describe the hydrogeologic response. The derivation of the response functions is based on a mass balance and considers the principal recharge mechanisms. Parameterisation makes use of available expert knowledge on geomorphology and seasonal rainfall characteristics. As an efficient tool to assess uncertainties, fuzzy arithmetic is used for complementary long-term average water balance estimates. This technique allows considering fuzziness in rainfall input, crop water use in mountain oases, and best available assumptions on recharge as portion of rainfall. Uncertainty regarding the potential, albeit unknown extent of groundwater basins is portrayed based on continuous surfaces which represent the degree of membership to a distinct geographical entity (termed as fuzzy regions). Distinct subsets of these fuzzy regions represent potential groundwater basins for water balance assessment. The proposed strategy was applied on the large scale in an arid karst mountain range in northern Oman. The two complementary assessment approaches result in similar ranges of values. They are in good agreement with inversely computed inflow to a steady state groundwater model for the adjacent basin aquifer. The results of the conceptual hydrologic model are confirmed by the plausibility of average recharge rates for distinct response units and seasons. This shows that less intense winter rainfall contributes mainly to groundwater recharge. Uncertainties due to the vague extent of the groundwater basin are about 30 % of the total mean annual value. An option to mitigate this uncertainty is the complementary consideration of adjacent aquifer systems in future studies. Hydrogeologic survey and observation of groundwater levels in the alluvial basin aquifer in near distance to the mountains is a way to underpin these findings in future studies. This recommenddation applies not only to the discussed study area, but also to mountain block systems in general.:1 Mountains - 'water towers' for water resources systems in arid regions 2 Mountain hydrology and water resources assessment 2.1 Mountain hydrology and mountain-front recharge 2.2 Essential aspects to advance mountain hydrology 2.2.1 Rainfall characteristics and options for data acquisition 2.2.2 Groundwater-surface water interactions and availability of reference values 2.3 Approaches to the assessment of mountain-front recharge 2.3.1 Options to assess groundwater recharge 2.3.2 Arid zone water balance modelling - options and limitations 2.3.3 Key components for assessing mountain-front recharge 2.4 Linear reservoir models to describe base flow recession 3 Approaches to deal with uncertainty with a special focus on fuzzy sets 3.1 Probability based uncertainty assessment versus fuzzy reasoning 3.2 Fuzzy sets and related methods 3.3 Ranges of application in hydrology and water resources management 4 A novel strategy for estimating groundwater recharge in arid mountain regions 5 Fuzzy-based tools to portray uncertainties in water balance assessment 5.1 Fuzzy Recharge Areas: From qualitative data to quantitative conclusions 5.1.1 The concept of the Fuzzy Recharge Areas 5.1.2 Consideration of adjacent basins 5.2 Water balance assessment based on fuzzy arithmetic 5.2.1 Outline of the calculation procedure 5.2.2 Implementation of the fuzzy arithmetic operators 5.2.3 Implementation of the regionalisation approach APLIS 6 A conceptual hydrologic model to assess mountain-front recharge 6.1 Basic idea 6.2 Model structure 6.3 Calculation procedure using histograms of rainfall depths 6.4 Non-linear seasonal rainfall-recharge relationships 6.4.1 Derivation of the rainfall-recharge relationships 6.4.2 Sensitivity analysis 6.4.3 Response functions based on extreme parameter sets 6.5 Subsurface routing based on linear reservoir models 7 Case Study: Groundwater recharge assessment for the Barka Region (Oman) 7.1 Study area 7.1.1 Topography 7.1.2 Climate 7.1.3 Evapotranspiration 7.1.4 Rainfall characteristics 7.1.5 Geology and Hydrogeology 7.1.6 Soils 7.1.7 Runoff characteristics 7.1.8 Vegetation and irrigated agriculture in mountain oases 7.2 Recharge mechanisms in the study area 7.3 Assessment of mountain-front recharge - Methodology 7.3.1 Data Processing of Fuzzy Recharge Areas 7.3.2 Determining response units 7.3.3 Water use in mountain oases 7.3.4 Long-term average considerations based on fuzzy arithmetic 7.3.5 Time-dependent assessment using the conceptual hydrologic model 7.4 Assessment of mountain-front recharge - Results 7.4.1 Long-term average considerations 7.4.2 Time-dependent estimates 7.5 Consideration of uncertainties 7.6 Discussion & Conclusions 7.6.1 Water resources assessment in the study area 7.6.2 Modelling approaches 8 Summary 9 Prospects for future work List of Figures List of Tables List of Symbols List of Abbreviations Appendix A: Sensitivity of the response function to variations of the different model parameters B: Histograms of subsurface outflow at the mountain front QMFR based on different parameterisations of the conceptual hydrologic model References / In ariden Gebieten haben Gebirgseinzugsgebiete einen wesentlichen Anteil am gesamten natürlichen Wasserdargebot. Aufgrund i. Allg. tief liegender Grundwasserspiegel ist - in Abgrenzung zum Oberflächenabfluss am Gebirgsrand - auch der unterirdische Abstrom (mountain-front recharge) von besonderer Bedeutung. Die Ausdehnung des unterirdischen Einzugsgebiets ist dabei oft vage. Ansätze zur Abschätzung des mountain-front recharge basieren meist auf Grundwasserdaten und integrieren in Zeit und Raum. Damit können allerdings keine prognostischen oder zeitabhängigen Schätzungen für den Zustrom zur benachbarten alluvialen Aquifer gemacht werden. Daher wird im folgenden ein niederschlagsbasierter Ansatz vorgeschlagen. Das vorgeschlagene neue Konzept kombiniert drei Ansätze, um den genannten Herausforderungen zu begegnen. Mit einem neu entwickelten konzeptionellen hydrologischen Modell auf Basis verteilter Niederschläge werden monatliche Werte für die Grundwasserneubildung bereitgestellt. Es basiert auf nicht-linearen Beziehungen zwischen Niederschlag und Grundwasserneubildung für definierte hydrologisch homogene Einheiten und Jahreszeiten. Deren Ableitung basiert auf einer Massenbilanz und berücksichtigt die wesentlichen Neubildungsmechanismen. Die Parametrisierung basiert auf Expertenwissen zu Geomorphologie und Niederschlagscharakteristika. Fuzzy Arithmetik wird zur Berücksichtigung von Unsicherheiten in einer ergänzenden mittleren jährlichen Wasserbilanz verwendet. Damit können Unschärfen im Niederschlagsinput, beim Pflanzenwasserbedarf in Gebirgsoasen und best verfügbaren Schätzungen der Neubildung als Bruchteil des Niederschlags effizient berücksichtigt werden. Mittels kontinuierlicher Oberflächen, die den Grad der Zugehörigkeit zu einer bestimmten geographischen Entität anzeigen (fuzzy regions) werden Unsicherheiten in der räumlichen Ausdehnung der unterirdischen Einzugsgebiete beschrieben. Definierte Teilmengen dieser fuzzy regions werden dann bei den Wasserhaushaltsbetrachtungen als potentielle Grundwassereinzugsgebiete verwendet. Der vorgeschlagene Ansatz wurde in einer ariden, teils verkarsteten Gebirgsregion im Norden des Sultanats Oman angewendet. Die beiden sich ergänzenden Ansätze zur Abschätzung der Grundwasserneubildung ergaben im langjährigen Mittel vergleichbare Werte. Diese stimmten auch gut mit den Ergebnissen einer inversen Grundwassermodellierung überein. Die Plausibilität der Neubildungsraten für bestimmte hydrologisch homogene Einheiten und Jahreszeiten spricht für die Verlässlichkeit der Ergebnisse des konzeptionellen hydrologischen Modells. Offensichtlich tragen insbesondere die weniger intensiven Winterniederschläge wesentlich zur Grundwasserneubildung bei. Die Unsicherheiten bezüglich der Ausdehnung des Grundwassereinzugsgebiets belaufen sich auf ca. 30 % des mittleren jährlichen Dargebots. Die komplementäre Betrachtung benachbarter Grundwassereinzugsgebiete ist ein denkbarer Weg, diese Unsicherheit in Zukunft zu reduzieren. Ein wesentlicher Beitrag um die Ergebnisse dieser Studie zukünftig weiter zu untermauern wären hydrogeologische Erkundung und Beobachtung von Grundwasserständen im alluvialen Aquifer, insbesondere nahe dem Gebirgsrand. Diese Empfehlung gilt über dieses Fallbeispiel hinaus für vergleichbare Systeme, in denen ein Gebirgseinzugsgebiet den Aquifer in der angrenzende Ebene speist.:1 Mountains - 'water towers' for water resources systems in arid regions 2 Mountain hydrology and water resources assessment 2.1 Mountain hydrology and mountain-front recharge 2.2 Essential aspects to advance mountain hydrology 2.2.1 Rainfall characteristics and options for data acquisition 2.2.2 Groundwater-surface water interactions and availability of reference values 2.3 Approaches to the assessment of mountain-front recharge 2.3.1 Options to assess groundwater recharge 2.3.2 Arid zone water balance modelling - options and limitations 2.3.3 Key components for assessing mountain-front recharge 2.4 Linear reservoir models to describe base flow recession 3 Approaches to deal with uncertainty with a special focus on fuzzy sets 3.1 Probability based uncertainty assessment versus fuzzy reasoning 3.2 Fuzzy sets and related methods 3.3 Ranges of application in hydrology and water resources management 4 A novel strategy for estimating groundwater recharge in arid mountain regions 5 Fuzzy-based tools to portray uncertainties in water balance assessment 5.1 Fuzzy Recharge Areas: From qualitative data to quantitative conclusions 5.1.1 The concept of the Fuzzy Recharge Areas 5.1.2 Consideration of adjacent basins 5.2 Water balance assessment based on fuzzy arithmetic 5.2.1 Outline of the calculation procedure 5.2.2 Implementation of the fuzzy arithmetic operators 5.2.3 Implementation of the regionalisation approach APLIS 6 A conceptual hydrologic model to assess mountain-front recharge 6.1 Basic idea 6.2 Model structure 6.3 Calculation procedure using histograms of rainfall depths 6.4 Non-linear seasonal rainfall-recharge relationships 6.4.1 Derivation of the rainfall-recharge relationships 6.4.2 Sensitivity analysis 6.4.3 Response functions based on extreme parameter sets 6.5 Subsurface routing based on linear reservoir models 7 Case Study: Groundwater recharge assessment for the Barka Region (Oman) 7.1 Study area 7.1.1 Topography 7.1.2 Climate 7.1.3 Evapotranspiration 7.1.4 Rainfall characteristics 7.1.5 Geology and Hydrogeology 7.1.6 Soils 7.1.7 Runoff characteristics 7.1.8 Vegetation and irrigated agriculture in mountain oases 7.2 Recharge mechanisms in the study area 7.3 Assessment of mountain-front recharge - Methodology 7.3.1 Data Processing of Fuzzy Recharge Areas 7.3.2 Determining response units 7.3.3 Water use in mountain oases 7.3.4 Long-term average considerations based on fuzzy arithmetic 7.3.5 Time-dependent assessment using the conceptual hydrologic model 7.4 Assessment of mountain-front recharge - Results 7.4.1 Long-term average considerations 7.4.2 Time-dependent estimates 7.5 Consideration of uncertainties 7.6 Discussion & Conclusions 7.6.1 Water resources assessment in the study area 7.6.2 Modelling approaches 8 Summary 9 Prospects for future work List of Figures List of Tables List of Symbols List of Abbreviations Appendix A: Sensitivity of the response function to variations of the different model parameters B: Histograms of subsurface outflow at the mountain front QMFR based on different parameterisations of the conceptual hydrologic model References