This thesis critically analyzes how gender intersects with risk processes and practices in outdoor adventure education. I focus on how language, binary logic, and societal norms work together to gender risk and offer three ways that risk may be gendered in the context of youth outdoor adventure education courses with youth. First, I discuss the use of hierarchical language, and the gendering practices of order, labeling, and omission that places girls and girls' needs as external or additional to a “neutral” masculine norm. Next, I analyze how an adherence to a rigid binary in the definition and conceptualization of risk parallels and perpetuates a gender binary that prioritizes masculinity and boys above femininity, girls, and non-binary youth. Third, I consider how societal norms influence stereotypes, assumptions, and expectations that gender risk on courses. I also examine seven situational practices that embody and illustrate gendered risk on outdoor adventure education courses with youth participants: gender as a risk, group composition, risk policies, challenge with non-binary identities, mom/dad instructor roles, hygiene instructional lessons, and transformation stories. In my discussion, I offer suggestions for what this research might practically offer outdoor adventure education and youth programming broadly. / Graduate

Background: Outdoor adventure can offer meaningful occupations that enhance health and wellbeing. Theory in relation to the meaning of outdoor adventure from an occupational science perspective, and the process by which people become engaged in occupation, is underdeveloped. Methodology: Phenomenological philosophy underpinned the methodology. Five elements are presented in this thesis, data were explored from: a systematic review and meta-synthesis of research exploring the meaning of outdoor adventure; focus groups exploring factors affecting sustained engagement in walking in a community context; adventure autobiographies as exemplars of engagement and outdoor culture; and interviews with participants who engaged in outdoor adventure. Concepts arising from the findings were thematically synthesised. Findings and discussion: The meaning of outdoor adventure was associated with a sense of connection to self, others, nature, the environment, time and place. Meaning was associated with engagement that was congruent with aspirations for identity, health and wellbeing, values, and beliefs. The meaning and process of engagement in outdoor adventure were influenced by the ability to establish confidence in relation to developing social networks, physical skills and the knowledge required to participate in chosen occupations. The process of engagement in outdoor adventure was influenced by convenience and the ability to accommodate participation alongside other work and family routines, in terms of time, location and priorities. The process of engagement in outdoor adventure was influenced by context. The findings also suggest a change in the meaning of engagement in outdoor adventure over time. Conclusion: The implications of the study are that these aspects of meaning and dynamic process could be considered within health promotion and occupational therapy practice to enhance initiating, sustaining and returning to occupational engagement in outdoor adventure. Further research would be beneficial in relation to evaluating the application of these concepts in occupational therapy practice.

This study investigated the success and failure beliefs, instructional practices, and personal learning preferences of outdoor adventure education (OAE) instructors, and explored factors that influenced these beliefs, practices, and preferences. While statistical analysis did not show significant differences among the various demographic categories on success beliefs, instructional practices, or personal learning preferences, there were significant differences in the magnitude of reported failure beliefs. Results from this study showed that OAE instructors' age, their professional experience, their employer, and the activities they teach affect their failure beliefs. Furthermore, OAE instructors indicated that success instructional techniques, like implementing scaffolding, should be used at the onset of a course or when a new skill is being introduced, while failure techniques should be employed as students gain experience or as a perception check to assess competence. The implications of these findings for OAE instructors is discussed.

To examine possible links between biophilia (love for living systems) and outdoor adventure training, this study explored various emotional relationships participants developed during Hooksum Outdoor School on Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Drawing from phenomenological psychology, ecopsychology, outdoor adventure training, and biophilia literature, I sought to answer the questions (1) if, and how, individuals develop emotional relationships with coastal environments; (2) what role the ocean plays in emotional change; (3) how individuals act in response to their relationships with the coast. Analysis included grouping themes from observation notes, questionnaires, and Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis of individual interviews. A focus was bringing the researcher into participants' lifeworlds as they experienced the program. Four individual participant stories demonstrate active relationship-building (1) within participants' inner selves; (2) between each other; (3) with the coastal environment. Findings contribute to recommendations for future research, providing insight into how program design can effectively address the biophilia tendency.

Outdoor adventure learning (OAL) provides a unique environment to teach organizational change. Therefore, there is an implication these programs can be used to foster necessary specific skills such as leading change, innovation, and thriving in hostile environments to lead in the ever-changing corporate world. Little research, however, supports the efficacy of adventure learning in achieving specific outcomes. Skeptics suggested the benefits of OAL programs do not always generalize effectively from the outdoor experience to the workplace. This paper outlines how utilizing strategic skills and theory to conduct OAL programs are effective and impactful in the corporate world. The purpose of this study was to examine the perceptions and meaning of a based outdoor adventure learning program among corporate executives using qualitative data analysis (QDA).

Physical activity (PA) has numerous benefits for cancer survivors, but limited research exists on PA interventions in young adult cancer survivors. Outdoor adventure therapy is a potential method of increasing PA in this demographic. The primary purpose of this non-randomized parallel group study was to determine whether the outdoor adventure camp experience (vs. wait list control) would increase participants’ PA levels immediately following the 7-day camp, as well as three months later. Secondary aims examined correlates of greater PA, including pre-post camp changes in sedentary behavior, exercise self-efficacy, environmental change self-efficacy, perceived barriers to exercise, physical activity enjoyment, and physical activity variety. Sixty-six control and 50 intervention participants were given validated quantitative questionnaires at baseline, 1 week (end of camp) and at the 3-month follow-up. Repeated measures multivariate analysis of variance (RMANOVA) was used to compare group changes over time. Using intent to treat analysis, adjusting for age, gender, age at diagnosis, and baseline minutes of PA per week, there was a significant difference (p=.0001) in minutes of PA per week between groups at both 1 week and 3 months. Bonferroni adjusted post-hoc analysis indicated that, relative to baseline, the intervention group had significantly (p=.0001) greater increases in PA at both 1 week (577 minutes vs. 9 minute increases) and 3 month follow-ups (133 minute increases vs. 75 minute decreases; p=.001) respectively. Significant intervention-related improvements were also observed in TV viewing hours/week (p=.001), hours sitting/week (p=.001), “Excuses” score of the Perceived Barriers to PA questionnaire (p=.04), Enjoyment of Structured Activities (p=.04), and PA Variety (p=.0001) at 1 week but not at the 3 month follow-up. No significant effects were observed for changes in exercise self-efficacy, environmental change self-efficacy, or the other subscales scores. In conclusion, outdoor adventure therapy has the potential to increase PA levels in cancer survivors both immediately following camp, as well as long-term. However, effects tend to wane after camp termination. Future research should explore the relationship between correlates of PA and PA levels in outdoor adventure therapy camp participants and methods to promote sustained PA after camp termination.

Given today’s social milieu, there is no denying that the nature of the life experiences youth are facing has drastically changed in recent decades. In this study, outdoor adventure education (OAE) was explored as a possible intervention strategy for the development of emotional intelligence during adolescence. This research project consisted of a case study of an event, namely “The Journey”, which is a 23-day outdoor adventure education programme for Grade 10 learners at a private high school for boys in a major South African city. Through this research, which involved collecting, analysing and interpreting data on the topic, an endeavour was made to explore the possible impact of OAE on the development of emotional intelligence, as well as the sustainability of skills acquired, and also on possible design elements that may impact on the facilitation of the development of emotional intelligence. This study was based on a socio-constructivist paradigm, which had developed from an interpretivist world view. This research project represents a multi-method mode of inquiry: both quantitative and qualitative data-gathering techniques were implemented as a process of triangulation to provide a comprehensive analysis of the research problem. The research proper (76 participants) was preceded by a pilot study (28 participants). For the research proper, participants completed the Bar-On EQ-i: YV (Bar-On, 2007) questionnaire before embarking on “The Journey” (pre) and again at its completion (post1). This was followed by another post-test three months later (post2). Furthermore, 10 participants had also been randomly selected to form part of a pre- and post- “Journey” focus-group interview and to provide reflective essays post- “Journey”. Another focus-group interview with selected staff members was conducted post-“Journey”. The identified themes generated from the quantitative and qualitative data collected were as follows: emotional intelligence; outdoor adventure education; rites of passage; “Journey” design elements; boarding; the emotional climate of the school; division based on stereotypes; and sustainability of skills acquired. In terms of emotional intelligence as a theme, the results indicated that participation in “The Journey” not only results in an increase in the overall EQ skills of participants, but that the impact also appears to be sustainable.1 As far as the impact of “The Journey” on the various subskills of emotional intelligence is concerned, the findings revealed that there was an increase in all EQ subskills directly after participation (quantitative and qualitative data). However, the results of the research proper, where pre- and post2-“Journey” scores were compared (quantitative data), suggest that increases were maintained in only three of the five subskills mentioned, namely intrapersonal skills, adaptability and general mood. Thus it appears that the initial increase in interpersonal and stress management skills did not have a sustainable effect. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2013. / gm2014 / Educational Psychology / unrestricted

Abstract This study aims at enhancing the understanding of outdoor adventure education and experience pedagogy as an alternative teaching method in schools. The purpose of the study is to develop outdoor adventure education, describe its practical implementation and report on the pupils' experiences. The sample is formed by the pupils of a single class in a fairly large town (N = 6, aged 10–12). The pupils had been classified as maladjusted for regular education. The research was carried out during one school year in the late 1990's. The research approach is an application of the ethnographic research tradition and action research. In this study the researcher has an active role shaping the research and trying to develop an alternative teaching method to make the pupils' action and experiences understandable by watching, listening and taking part in the activities. The study develops a method of outdoor adventure education and experience pedagogy, tests its functionality and describes the pupils' experiences of the method as it was applied into practice. The study is not about competition for the superiority or justification of the school's teaching, and the teaching culture is only discussed in terms of a single method. The study at hand consists of a theoretical and empirical part so that outdoor adventure education constitutes the theoretical frame of reference, while the research observations, analysis and interpretation form the empirical part of the study. The research background is described in Chapters 1 to 3, the research observations and their summaries in Chapter 4, conclusions of the analysis and interpretation of the observations in Chapter 5, consisting of discussions of reliability and repeatability. The last chapter of the study, Chapter 6, consists of discussions of the pedagogical conclusions. The observations would appear to show that outdoor adventure education and experience pedagogy is connected with the reform-pedagogical approach, constructivist interpretation of learning and reflective learning. Through these pedagogical approaches outdoor adventure education could be added in the comprehensive school curriculum as an alternative teaching and learning method. It could be implemented as a rehabilitative method of special education without any massive projects or resources. The pupils thought that their experiences of outdoor adventure education and experience pedagogy were positive from the viewpoint of their own development, social interaction and school satisfaction. We can maintain on the basis of the current study that the method implemented here provides one way to add to school motivation and thus to prevent exclusion from education. The observations would appear to show that the method could help to integrate the goals of growth and learning in the modern educational system so heavily focused on information and technology. "But the walking of which I speak has nothing in it akin to taking exercise, as it is called, as the sick take medicine at stated hours—as the swinging of dumb-bells or chairs; but is itself the enterprise and adventure of the day." (Henry Thoreau 1817—62) / Tiivistelmä Tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan seikkailu- ja elämyspedagogiikkaa kasvatus-, opetus- ja oppimisnäkemyksenä sekä peruskoulun yleiseen opetussuunnitelmaan sisältyvänä vaihtoehtoisena käytännön opetus- ja oppimismenetelmänä. Tehtävänä on kehitellä ja selkiyttää seikkailu- ja elämyspedagogiikan ilmiötä, kuvata sen käytännön toteutumista koulussa ja tuoda esille oppilaiden kokemuksia. Kohteena on suurehkon kaupungin erityiskoulun yhden luokan oppilaat (N = 6, ikä 10–12 v.). Oppilaat oli luokiteltu yleisopetukseen sopeutumattomiksi. Tutkimusajankohta oli yksi lukuvuosi 1990-luvun loppupuolella. Tutkimusotteena on etnografisen tutkimustradition, toimintatutkimuksen ja konstruktiivisen tutkimusotteen sovellus. Tutkimusessa tutkijalla on aktiivinen rooli. Hän koettaa kehitellä vaihtoehtoista opetusmenetelmää ja saada oppilaiden toimintaa ja kokemuksia ymmärrettäväksi katselemalla, kuuntelemalla ja ottamalla osaa toimintaan. Esitys on vain yksi esimerkki siitä, miten vaihtoehtoista opetusta voidaan tutkia ja kokeilla, eikä tarkoitus ole vertailla toisiinsa eri opetusmenetelmiä tai kulttuureita. Käsillä oleva tutkimus koostuu teoreettisesta ja empiirisestä osiosta niin, että seikkailu- ja elämyspedagogiikkaan liittyvä traditio muodostaa tutkimuksen teoreettisen viitekehyksen ja tutkimushavainnot empiirisen osan, joista analyysin ja tulkinnan avulla laaditaan pedagogiset johtopäätökset. Seikkailu- ja elämyspedagogiikka kytkeytyy reformipedagogiseen suuntaukseen, konstruktivistiseen oppimisen tulkintaan ja reflektiiviseen oppimiseen. Näiden pedagogisten näkemysten avulla seikkailu- ja elämyspedagogiikka voitiin liittää peruskoulun opetussuunnitelman sisään kuuluvaksi vaihtoehtoiseksi opetus- ja oppimismenetelmäksi. Tutkimuksen perusteella näyttää, että seikkailu- ja elämyspedagogiikan avulla oli mahdollista tukea kouluoppiaineiden ulkopuolelle jääviä persoonallisen kasvun ja sosiaalisen toiminnan tavoitteita. Kokemukset seikkailu- ja elämyspedagogiikasta olivat oppilaiden mukaan myönteisiä oman kehittymisen, sosiaalisen vuorovaikutuksen ja kouluviihtyvyyden ja kannalta. Voidaan todeta, että seikkailu- ja elämyspedagogiikka on yksi vaihtoehtoinen menetelmä haastavien oppilaiden kuntouttavassa kasvatuksessa, koulumotivaation lisäämisessä ja syrjäytymisen ehkäisemisessä. Havaintojen perusteella näyttäisi, että menetelmän avulla voidaan eheyttää kasvu- ja oppimistavoitteita tämän päivän tieto- ja teknologiapainotteisessa koulujärjestelmässä. "Mutta se kävely, josta minä puhun, ei muistuta lainkaan niin kutsuttua liikunnan harjoitusta, ei lääkkeiden nauttimista määrätunnein eikä käsipainojen tai tuolien nostelua, vaan on päivän tehtävä tai seikkailu" (Henry Thoreau 1817–62)

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