L'objectif général de cette thèse de doctorat est de caractériser les propriétés de membranes PFSA de type Nafion N115 et Nafion NRE212 en termes de sorption d'eau, de propriétés de transport et de propriétés mécaniques, sur une large gamme de conditions expérimentales. Nous avons réalisé de très nombreuses mesures afin de comparer les résultats avec les données de la littérature, souvent dispersées. Des protocoles simples et reproductibles nous ont permis de mesurer les propriétés des membranes et d'étudier l'influence de certains paramètres sur leur variation. Les échantillons ont par exemple été séchés à différentes températures et nous avons étudié l'effet de ce prétraitement thermique sur la capacité de sorption, les propriétés de transport et les propriétés mécaniques. Les membranes Nafion ont également été exposées à une température modérée (60°C - 80°C) et à une humidité relative constante (RH = 0.3 à 0.95) pendant plusieurs semaines, conditions à l'origine d'un phénomène dit de "vieillissement hygrothermique" qui affecte leur capacité de sorption et leur conductivité protonique. De tels effets ont été observés mais ils se sont révélés réversibles et sans conséquences notables en terme de performances une fois les membranes utilisées en pile à combustible. Nos résultats peuvent être utilisés dans des études impliquant le transport et la gestion de l'eau dans les piles à combustible ainsi que leur durabilité, en particulier pour de la simulation numérique ou de la modélisation. Plus fondamentalement, ils peuvent aider à comprendre la thermodynamique de sorption et les phénomènes de transport dans les membranes PFSA / The overall aim of this PhD thesis was to characterize the properties of commercial Nafion N115 and Nafion NRE212 membranes in term of water sorption, transport, and mechanical properties over a wide range of experimental conditions. Because of the high dispersion of the data in the literature, our primary objective was to gather a comprehensive set of experimental measurements and to compare them with published results. Simple and reproducible protocols allowed us to measure the membrane properties over a wide range of experimental conditions and to study the influence of certain parameters on their evolution. For example, the samples were heat-treated at different temperatures and the effect of thermal history on water sorption, transport and mechanical properties was investigated. Nafion membranes were also exposed to moderate temperature (60°C - 80°C) and constant relative humidity (RH = 0.3 to 0.95) for long periods of time, which is known to cause a so-called ?hygrothermal aging? resulting in a decrease in their sorption capacity and proton conductivity. Such effects were observed but they appeared to be reversible and without noticeable consequences in term of fuel cell performance. Our experimental results can be used in studies involving water transport, water management and durability of fuel cells, especially for numerical simulation or modelling. More fundamentally, they can help understanding the thermodynamics of sorption and transport phenomena in PFSA membranes

As células a combustível do tipo PEM (Próton Exchange Membrane) alimentadas diretamente por hidrogênio são consideradas as mais promissoras para a geração de energia elétrica, entretanto o uso de hidrogênio como combustível nestas células apresenta ainda alguns inconvenientes operacionais e de infra-estrutura, o que dificulta o seu uso. Assim, nos últimos anos, uma célula a combustível que utiliza um álcool diretamente como combustível (DAFC - Direct Alcohol Fuel Cell) tem despertado bastante interesse, particularmente aquelas que são alimentadas pelos combustíveis metanol ou etanol, pois apresentam várias vantagens, como por exemplo, a não necessidade de estocar hidrogênio ou gerá-lo através da reforma de hidrocarbonetos.Porém, células que utilizam diretamente metanol como combustível, apresentam correntes relativamente baixas e a oxidação completa do etanol é dificultado pela quebra da ligação CC e também há a formação de intermediários fortemente adsorvidos no eletrocatalisador de platina, como o monóxido de carbono (COads), resultando em baixos potenciais operacionais na célula.Para minimizar o efeito causado pelos venenos catalíticos faz-se necessária a adição de outros metais na composição do eletrodo de Pt. Tais metais devem atuar na reação fornecendo sítios para a adsorção de espécies que contenham oxigênio (OH ou H2O), em potenciais inferiores ao potencial de adsorção de OH na Pt.Este trabalho apresenta estudos da reação de eletro-oxidação destes álcoois, nos meios ácido e alcalino, sobre os eletrocatalisadores Pt/C, PtAu/C e PtAuBi/C, utilizando o método da redução via feixe de elétrons. Os eletrocatalisadores PtAuBi/C foram preparados com diferentes composições atômicas a fim de se avaliar o efeito da adição de bismuto. Os experimentos foram caracterizados por voltametria cíclica e cronoamperometria, utilizando a técnica do eletrodo de camada fina porosa, obtendo informações em relação às atividades dos catalisadores, perfis eletroquímicos e suas estabilidades em relação ao tempo de operação. Os eletrodepósitos foram examinados usando análise de energia dispersiva de raios-X (EDX) e microscopia eletrônica de varredura (MEV) a fim de determinar a composição de fases, o tamanho e a distribuição das nanopartículas metálicas no suporte. Os resultados eletroquímicos mostraram para oxidação eletroquímica de metanol, no meio alcalino, que o catalisador de PtAu/C apresentou melhor atividade eletrocatalítica e, no meio ácido, o catalisador Pt/C foi mais efetivo com relação às demais formulações preparadas e os eletrocatalisadores PtAuBi/C apresentaram-se pouco efetivos. No caso da oxidação do etanol, os dados eletroquímicos mostraram que, no meio ácido os catalisadores PtAu e Pt/C possuem comportamentos similares e os catalisadores PtAuBi/C demonstram baixa atividade. No meio alcalino, o sistema PtAuBi/C obteve melhor desempenho em relação aos demais catalisadores, obtendo maiores valores de correntes à baixos potenciais. / Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cell powered directly by hydrogen are considered the most promising for the generation of electricity, however the use of hydrogen as fuel in these cells also presents some drawbacks and operational infrastructure, which hinders its use. Thus, in recent years, a fuel cell which uses an alcohol directly as a fuel (DAFC - Direct Alcohol Fuel Cell) has attracted considerable interest, particularly those that are powered by fuels methanol or ethanol, they present several advantages, such as not need to store hydrogen or generate it through reform of hydrocarbons. However, cells that use methanol directly as fuel, have relatively low current and complete oxidation of ethanol is hampered by the cleavage of C-C and there is also the formation of intermediate strongly adsorbed on the platinum electrocatalyst, such as carbon monoxide (COads), resulting in low operational potential in cell. To reduce the effect caused by the \"poisons\" catalyst is needed the addition of other metals in the composition of Pt electrode. Such, metals should act on the reaction providing sites for adsorption of species containing oxygen (OH or H2O) in potential below for adsorption of OH in Pt.In this work studies the reaction of electro-oxidation of this alcohols in acid medium and alkaline on the electrocatalysts Pt / C, PtAu / C and PtAuBi / C, using the method of reduction electron beam. The electrocatalysts PtAuBi / C were prepared with different compositions to evaluate the effect of addition of bismuth. The materials were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and cyclic voltammetry (CV). The electro-oxidation of methanol and ethanol were studied by cyclic voltammetry and chronoamperometry at room temperature. The results showed for electrochemical oxidation of methanol in alkaline medium, the catalyst PtAu / C showed better electrocatalytic activity and, in the acidic medium, the catalyst Pt / C was more effective in relation to other formulations prepared and electrocatalysts PtAuBi / C were ineffective. In ethanol oxidation, the results showed that, in acidic medium, catalysts PtAu and Pt / C have similar behaviors and catalysts PtAuBi / C show low activity. In alkaline medium, the system PtAuBi / C performed better than the other catalysts, obtaining higher values of current at low potentials.

Sistemas de PEMFC são capazes de gerar energia elétrica com alta eficiência e baixa ou nenhuma emissão de poluentes, porém questões de custo e durabilidade impedem sua ampla comercialização. Nesse trabalho foi desenvolvido um MEA com eletrocatalisadores à base de paládio. Foram sintetizados e caracterizados eletrocatalisadores Pd/C, Pt/C e Ligas PdPt/C com diferentes razões entre metais e carbono. Foi realizado um estudo da razão entre ionômero de Nafion e eletrocatalisador para formação de triplas fases reacionais de máximos desempenhos, criado um modelo matemático para transpor esse ajuste para eletrocatalisadores com diferentes razões entre metal e suporte, considerando os aspectos volumétricos da camada catalisadora, e então realizado um estudo da espessura da camada catalisadora. Para as caracterizações foram utilizadas as técnicas de Difração de Raios-X, Microscopias Eletrônicas de Transmissão e de Varredura, Energia Dispersiva de Raios-X, Picnometria a Gás, Porosimetria por Intrusão de Mercúrio, Adsorção de Gás, segundo as equações de BET e BJH, Análise Termo Gravimétrica e feitas as determinações de diâmetros de partículas, de áreas de superfície específica e de parâmetros de rede. Todos os eletrocatalisadores foram usados no preparo de MEAs que foram avaliados em célula unitária de 5 cm2 entre 25 e 100 °C a 1 atm; e a melhor composição foi avaliada também a 3 atm. No estudo dos metais para as reações, visando reduzir a platina aplicada aos eletrodos, sem perdas de desempenho, foram selecionados Pd/C para ânodos e PdPt/C 1:1 para cátodos. A estrutura de MEA desenvolvida utilizou 0,25 mgPt.cm-2 e resultou em densidades de potência de até 550 mW.cm-2 e potências de até 2,2 kWe por grama de platina. A estimativa realizada mostrou que houve uma redução de até 64,5 % nos custos em relação à estrutura de MEA previamente conhecida. Em função da temperatura e pressão de operação foram obtidos valores a partir de R$ 3.540,73 para o preparo de MEAs para cada quilowatt instalado. Com base em estudos recentes, concluiu-se que o custo do MEA desenvolvido é compatível às aplicações estacionárias de PEMFC. / PEMFC systems are capable of generating electricity with high efficiency and low or no emissions, but durability and cost issues prevent its large commercialization. In this work MEA with palladium based catalysts were developed, Pd/C, Pt/C and alloys PdPt/C catalysts with different ratios between metals and carbon were synthesized and characterized. A study of the ratio between catalyst and Nafion Ionomer for formation of high performance triple-phase reaction was carried out, a mathematical model to implement this adjustment to catalysts with different relations between metal and support taking into account the volumetric aspects of the catalyst layer was developed and then a study of the catalyst layer thickness was performed. X-ray diffraction, Transmission and Scanning Electron Microscopy, X-ray Energy Dispersive, Gas Pycnometry, Mercury Intrusion Porosimetry, Gas adsorption according to the BET and BJH equations, and Thermo Gravimetric Analysis techniques were used for characterization and particle size, specific surface areas and lattice parameters determinations were also carried out. All catalysts were used on MEAs preparation and evaluated in 5 cm2 single cell from 25 to 100 °C at 1 atm and the best composition was also evaluated at 3 atm. In the study of metals for reactions, to reduce the platinum applied to the electrodes without performance losses, Pd/C and PdPt/C 1:1 were selected for anodes and cathodes, respectively. The developed MEA structure used 0,25 mgPt.cm-2, showing power densities up to 550 mW.cm-2 and power of 2.2 kWnet per gram of platinum. The estimated costs showed that there was a reduction of up to 64.5 %, compared to the MEA structures previously known. Depending on the temperature and operating pressure, values from US$ 1,475.30 to prepare MEAs for each installed kilowatt were obtained. Taking into account recent studies, it was concluded that the cost of the developed MEA is compatible with PEMFC stationary application.

Ce travail s'inscrit dans les thématiques matériaux carbonés et matériaux pour l'énergie. Il s'agit d'une part de remplacer tout ou partie du platine, catalyseur de la pile à combustible basse température, par des matériaux moins coûteux et plus abondants ; et d'autre part d'optimiser l'accessibilité des sites catalytiques aux réactifs. WCl6 est imprégné en phase gazeuse en présence de dichlore sur un support dérivé du graphite expansé, avant d'être réduit/carburé afin d'obtenir des dérivés du tungstène (tungstène, carbures de tungstène). La taille et la nature des nanoparticules dépendent de la composition du gaz utilisé (H2 ou mélange H2/CH4) et de la température de réaction. En présence de H2, la réduction est complète à partir de 550°C. L'utilisation d'un mélange gazeux H2/CH4 (90/10, 85/15 ou 80/20) conduit à l'élaboration de nanoparticules de W2C et WC. L'augmentation de la température favorise le frittage des particules mais pas la carburation complète. Les tests en demi-pile effectués sur ces catalyseurs révèlent qu'ils sont peu performants. Des catalyseurs mixtes Pt-W2C sont obtenus en déposant successivement PtCl4 et WCl6. La réduction - carburation est réalisée à 900°C en présence d'un mélange H2/CH4 (85/15). Ces matériaux possèdent des performances électrocatalytiques bien supérieures à celles d'un catalyseur commercial pour un taux de platine équivalent. Ce travail concerne également la fonctionnalisation du support carboné par des groupements sulfonate. Le greffage de polystyrène sulfonate est efficace car il permet de diminuer la quantité de Nafion utilisée dans les électrodes et d'améliorer les performances catalytiques / This work is implicated in the development of carbon materials and of materials for energy applications. In the first part, we aim to totally or partially replace the platinum catalyst of the Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell by less expensive and more abundant materials. In the second part, we optimize the catalytic sites accessibility for the reactants. WCl6 was impregnated on the Expanded Graphite derivated substrate by gaseous transport under chlorine pressure before being reduced and/or carburized in order to obtain tungsten derivatives (tungsten, tungsten carbides). The nature and size of the nanoparticles depend on the reducing or carburizing gas composition (H2 or H2/CH4 mixture) and the reaction temperature. Reduction is not complete until 500°C when using H2. W2C and WC mixtures are formed when using H2/CH4 mixtures (90/10, 85/15 or 80/20). The temperature increasing favours the sintering effect but not the complete carburization. All these obtained catalysts show low electrocatalytic performances when tested on a half-cell system. Platinum-tungsten hemicarbides catalysts were obtained by a successive deposition of PtCl4 and WCl6 while the reduction-carburization step was realized at 900°C under H2/CH4 mixture (85/15). These materials show higher electrocatalytic performances than a commercial platinum catalyst for an equivalent platinum ratio. The final part of this work concerns the carbon support functionnalization with sulfonate groups. Polystyrene sufonate grafting seems efficient for it helps to reduce the Nafion quantities used in the electrodes and to increase the electrocatalytic performances

As células a combustível do tipo PEM (Próton Exchange Membrane) alimentadas diretamente por hidrogênio são consideradas as mais promissoras para a geração de energia elétrica, entretanto o uso de hidrogênio como combustível nestas células apresenta ainda alguns inconvenientes operacionais e de infra-estrutura, o que dificulta o seu uso. Assim, nos últimos anos, uma célula a combustível que utiliza um álcool diretamente como combustível (DAFC - Direct Alcohol Fuel Cell) tem despertado bastante interesse, particularmente aquelas que são alimentadas pelos combustíveis metanol ou etanol, pois apresentam várias vantagens, como por exemplo, a não necessidade de estocar hidrogênio ou gerá-lo através da reforma de hidrocarbonetos.Porém, células que utilizam diretamente metanol como combustível, apresentam correntes relativamente baixas e a oxidação completa do etanol é dificultado pela quebra da ligação CC e também há a formação de intermediários fortemente adsorvidos no eletrocatalisador de platina, como o monóxido de carbono (COads), resultando em baixos potenciais operacionais na célula.Para minimizar o efeito causado pelos venenos catalíticos faz-se necessária a adição de outros metais na composição do eletrodo de Pt. Tais metais devem atuar na reação fornecendo sítios para a adsorção de espécies que contenham oxigênio (OH ou H2O), em potenciais inferiores ao potencial de adsorção de OH na Pt.Este trabalho apresenta estudos da reação de eletro-oxidação destes álcoois, nos meios ácido e alcalino, sobre os eletrocatalisadores Pt/C, PtAu/C e PtAuBi/C, utilizando o método da redução via feixe de elétrons. Os eletrocatalisadores PtAuBi/C foram preparados com diferentes composições atômicas a fim de se avaliar o efeito da adição de bismuto. Os experimentos foram caracterizados por voltametria cíclica e cronoamperometria, utilizando a técnica do eletrodo de camada fina porosa, obtendo informações em relação às atividades dos catalisadores, perfis eletroquímicos e suas estabilidades em relação ao tempo de operação. Os eletrodepósitos foram examinados usando análise de energia dispersiva de raios-X (EDX) e microscopia eletrônica de varredura (MEV) a fim de determinar a composição de fases, o tamanho e a distribuição das nanopartículas metálicas no suporte. Os resultados eletroquímicos mostraram para oxidação eletroquímica de metanol, no meio alcalino, que o catalisador de PtAu/C apresentou melhor atividade eletrocatalítica e, no meio ácido, o catalisador Pt/C foi mais efetivo com relação às demais formulações preparadas e os eletrocatalisadores PtAuBi/C apresentaram-se pouco efetivos. No caso da oxidação do etanol, os dados eletroquímicos mostraram que, no meio ácido os catalisadores PtAu e Pt/C possuem comportamentos similares e os catalisadores PtAuBi/C demonstram baixa atividade. No meio alcalino, o sistema PtAuBi/C obteve melhor desempenho em relação aos demais catalisadores, obtendo maiores valores de correntes à baixos potenciais. / Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cell powered directly by hydrogen are considered the most promising for the generation of electricity, however the use of hydrogen as fuel in these cells also presents some drawbacks and operational infrastructure, which hinders its use. Thus, in recent years, a fuel cell which uses an alcohol directly as a fuel (DAFC - Direct Alcohol Fuel Cell) has attracted considerable interest, particularly those that are powered by fuels methanol or ethanol, they present several advantages, such as not need to store hydrogen or generate it through reform of hydrocarbons. However, cells that use methanol directly as fuel, have relatively low current and complete oxidation of ethanol is hampered by the cleavage of C-C and there is also the formation of intermediate strongly adsorbed on the platinum electrocatalyst, such as carbon monoxide (COads), resulting in low operational potential in cell. To reduce the effect caused by the \"poisons\" catalyst is needed the addition of other metals in the composition of Pt electrode. Such, metals should act on the reaction providing sites for adsorption of species containing oxygen (OH or H2O) in potential below for adsorption of OH in Pt.In this work studies the reaction of electro-oxidation of this alcohols in acid medium and alkaline on the electrocatalysts Pt / C, PtAu / C and PtAuBi / C, using the method of reduction electron beam. The electrocatalysts PtAuBi / C were prepared with different compositions to evaluate the effect of addition of bismuth. The materials were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and cyclic voltammetry (CV). The electro-oxidation of methanol and ethanol were studied by cyclic voltammetry and chronoamperometry at room temperature. The results showed for electrochemical oxidation of methanol in alkaline medium, the catalyst PtAu / C showed better electrocatalytic activity and, in the acidic medium, the catalyst Pt / C was more effective in relation to other formulations prepared and electrocatalysts PtAuBi / C were ineffective. In ethanol oxidation, the results showed that, in acidic medium, catalysts PtAu and Pt / C have similar behaviors and catalysts PtAuBi / C show low activity. In alkaline medium, the system PtAuBi / C performed better than the other catalysts, obtaining higher values of current at low potentials.

Sistemas de PEMFC são capazes de gerar energia elétrica com alta eficiência e baixa ou nenhuma emissão de poluentes, porém questões de custo e durabilidade impedem sua ampla comercialização. Nesse trabalho foi desenvolvido um MEA com eletrocatalisadores à base de paládio. Foram sintetizados e caracterizados eletrocatalisadores Pd/C, Pt/C e Ligas PdPt/C com diferentes razões entre metais e carbono. Foi realizado um estudo da razão entre ionômero de Nafion e eletrocatalisador para formação de triplas fases reacionais de máximos desempenhos, criado um modelo matemático para transpor esse ajuste para eletrocatalisadores com diferentes razões entre metal e suporte, considerando os aspectos volumétricos da camada catalisadora, e então realizado um estudo da espessura da camada catalisadora. Para as caracterizações foram utilizadas as técnicas de Difração de Raios-X, Microscopias Eletrônicas de Transmissão e de Varredura, Energia Dispersiva de Raios-X, Picnometria a Gás, Porosimetria por Intrusão de Mercúrio, Adsorção de Gás, segundo as equações de BET e BJH, Análise Termo Gravimétrica e feitas as determinações de diâmetros de partículas, de áreas de superfície específica e de parâmetros de rede. Todos os eletrocatalisadores foram usados no preparo de MEAs que foram avaliados em célula unitária de 5 cm2 entre 25 e 100 °C a 1 atm; e a melhor composição foi avaliada também a 3 atm. No estudo dos metais para as reações, visando reduzir a platina aplicada aos eletrodos, sem perdas de desempenho, foram selecionados Pd/C para ânodos e PdPt/C 1:1 para cátodos. A estrutura de MEA desenvolvida utilizou 0,25 mgPt.cm-2 e resultou em densidades de potência de até 550 mW.cm-2 e potências de até 2,2 kWe por grama de platina. A estimativa realizada mostrou que houve uma redução de até 64,5 % nos custos em relação à estrutura de MEA previamente conhecida. Em função da temperatura e pressão de operação foram obtidos valores a partir de R$ 3.540,73 para o preparo de MEAs para cada quilowatt instalado. Com base em estudos recentes, concluiu-se que o custo do MEA desenvolvido é compatível às aplicações estacionárias de PEMFC. / PEMFC systems are capable of generating electricity with high efficiency and low or no emissions, but durability and cost issues prevent its large commercialization. In this work MEA with palladium based catalysts were developed, Pd/C, Pt/C and alloys PdPt/C catalysts with different ratios between metals and carbon were synthesized and characterized. A study of the ratio between catalyst and Nafion Ionomer for formation of high performance triple-phase reaction was carried out, a mathematical model to implement this adjustment to catalysts with different relations between metal and support taking into account the volumetric aspects of the catalyst layer was developed and then a study of the catalyst layer thickness was performed. X-ray diffraction, Transmission and Scanning Electron Microscopy, X-ray Energy Dispersive, Gas Pycnometry, Mercury Intrusion Porosimetry, Gas adsorption according to the BET and BJH equations, and Thermo Gravimetric Analysis techniques were used for characterization and particle size, specific surface areas and lattice parameters determinations were also carried out. All catalysts were used on MEAs preparation and evaluated in 5 cm2 single cell from 25 to 100 °C at 1 atm and the best composition was also evaluated at 3 atm. In the study of metals for reactions, to reduce the platinum applied to the electrodes without performance losses, Pd/C and PdPt/C 1:1 were selected for anodes and cathodes, respectively. The developed MEA structure used 0,25 mgPt.cm-2, showing power densities up to 550 mW.cm-2 and power of 2.2 kWnet per gram of platinum. The estimated costs showed that there was a reduction of up to 64.5 %, compared to the MEA structures previously known. Depending on the temperature and operating pressure, values from US$ 1,475.30 to prepare MEAs for each installed kilowatt were obtained. Taking into account recent studies, it was concluded that the cost of the developed MEA is compatible with PEMFC stationary application.

The polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) converts the chemical energy of hydrogen and oxygen (air) into usable electrical energy. At the cathode (the positive electrode), a considerable amount of platinum is generally required to catalyse the sluggish oxygen reduction reaction (ORR). This has implications regarding the cost in high-power applications, and for making a broad commercialisation of the PEMFC technology possible, it would be desirable to lower the amount of Pt used to catalyse the ORR. In this thesis a number of techniques are described that have been developed in order to investigate catalytic activity at the cathode of the PEMFC. These methodologies resemble traditional three-electrode research in liquid electrolytes, including cyclic voltammetry in inert gas, but with the advantage of performing the experiments in the true PEMFC environment. From the porous electrode studies it was seen that it is possible to reach mass activities close to 0.2 gPt/kW at potentials above 0.65 V at 60 ◦C, but that the mass activities may become considerably lower when raising the temperature to 80 ◦C and changing the measurement methodology regarding potential cycling limits and electrode manufacturing. The model electrode studies rendered some interesting results regarding the ORR at the Pt/Nafion interface. Using a novel measurement setup for measuring on catalysed planar glassy carbon disks, it was seen that humidity has a considerable effect on the ORR kinetics of Pt. The Tafel slopes become steeper and the activity decreases when the humidity level of the inlet gases decreases. Since no change in the the electrochemical area of the Pt/Nafion interface could be seen, these kinetic phenomena were ascribed to a lowered Pt oxide coverage at the lower humidity level, in combination with a lower proton activity. Using bi-layered nm-thick model electrodes deposited directly on Nafion membranes, the behaviour of TiO2 and other metal oxides in combination with Pt in the PEMFC environment was investigated. Kinetically, no intrinsic effect could be seen for the model electrodes when adding a metal oxide, but compared to porous electrodes, the surface (specific) activity of a 3 nm film of Pt deposited on Nafion seems to be higher than for a porous electrode using ∼4 nm Pt grains deposited on a carbon support. Comparing the cyclic voltammograms in N2, this higher activity could be ascribed to less Pt oxide formation, possibly due to a particle size effect. For these bi-layered films it was also seen that TiO2 may operate as a proton-conducting electrolyte in the PEMFC. / I polymerelektrolytbränslecellen (PEMFC) omvandlas den kemiska energin hos vätgas och syrgas (luft) direkt till användbar elektrisk energi. På katoden (den positiva elektroden) krävs betydande mängder platina för att katalysera den tröga syrereduktionsreaktionen (ORR). Detta inverkar på kostnaden för högeffektsapplikationer, och för att göra en bred kommersialisering av PEMFC-teknologin möjlig skulle det vara önskvärt att minska den Pt-mängd som används för att katalysera ORR. I denna avhandling beskrivs ett antal tekniker som utvecklats för att undersöka katalytisk aktivitet på katoden i PEMFC. Metodiken liknar traditionella treelektrodexperiment i vätskeformig elektrolyt, med cyklisk voltammetri i inert gas, men med fördelen att försöken utförs i den riktiga PEMFC-miljön. I försök med porösa elektroder visades att det är möjligt att nå massaktiviteter nära 0.2 gPt/kW för potentialer över 0.65 V vid 60 ◦C, men massaktiviteterna kan bli betydligt lägre om temperaturen höjs till 80 ◦C, och om potentialsvepgränser och elektrodentillverkningsmetod ändras. Försök med modellelektroder resulterade i intressanta resultat rörande ORR i gränsskiktet Pt/Nafion. Genom att använda en ny metodik för att mäta på katalyserade plana elektroder av vitröst kol (glassy carbon), var det möjligt att se att gasernas fuktighet har en betydande inverkan på ORR-kinetiken hos Pt. Tafellutningarna blir brantare och aktiviteten minskar när inloppsgasernas fuktighetsgrad minskar. Eftersom den elektrokemiska arean hos Pt/Nafion-gränsskiktet inte ändrades, ansågs dessa kinetiska effekter bero på en lägre täckningsgrad av Ptoxider vid lägre fuktigheter, i kombination med lägre protonaktivitet. Genom att använda Nafionmembran belagda med nm-tjocka tvåskiktsmodellelektroder undersöktes hur Pt i kombination med TiO2 och andra metalloxider verkar i PEMFC-miljön. Kinetiskt sett hade tillsatsen av metalloxider ingen inre påverkan på aktiviteten, men vid jämförelse med porösa elektroder tycks den specifika ytaktiviteten vara högre hos en 3 nm film av Pt på Nafion än för en porös elektrod baserad på ∼4 nm Pt-korn belagda på ett kolbärarmaterial. Jämför man de cykliska voltammogrammen i N2, kan den högre aktiviteten tillskrivas en lägre grad av Pt-oxidbildning, vilket i sin tur kan bero på en storlekseffekt hos Pt-partiklarna. Försöken med dessa tvåskiktselektroder visade också att TiO2 kan verka som protonledande elektrolyt i PEMFC. / QC 20100706

Dans un contexte global de réduction des émissions de gaz à effet de serre, des solutions doivent être trouvées pour limiter les pollutions liées aux transports. Dans le domaine aéronautique, l’efficacité énergétique des avions peut être améliorée entre autres par l’utilisation de sources alternatives, comme les piles à combustible. Cette technologie est un dispositif électrochimique permettant de convertir le dihydrogène et le dioxygène en électricité, eau et chaleur. Néanmoins, le coût et la durée de vie de la pile sont des points faibles de cette technologie et doivent être améliorés.Dans le cadre d’une utilisation à bord d’un avion de ligne, l'analyse de la durabilité d'un système pile à combustible PEMFC est menée, en lien avec l'industriel Zodiac Aerospace. La prise en compte du vieillissement de la pile à combustible dans la gestion du système pile est essentielle pour limiter l’impact de conditions locales inappropriées du cœur de pile qui diminuent sa durée de vie. Dans ce travail, une étude complète est proposée pour corréler les mécanismes de vieillissement du cœur de pile (dégradation de la membrane, dissolution du catalyseur) aux conditions locales de la pile définies en partie par les performances des auxiliaires du système pile, le profil de puissance et les conditions environnementales du système. L'objectif est de prédire les performances de la pile et sa durée de vie afin de suggérer des stratégies d’optimisation pour l'application visée. L’approche proposée est basée sur la simulation numérique et validée par des essais de durabilité.Un modèle multi-physique existant au CEA est développé dans cette thèse pour corréler les usages aux mécanismes de dégradation. Une description physique de la pile à combustible est réalisée dans ce modèle, avec la prise en compte des réactions électrochimiques, des mécanismes de diffusion de l’eau et des gaz à l’échelle microscopique dans la pile, ainsi que de la thermique. Des améliorations y sont apportées, afin de mieux représenter la géométrie des plaques distributrices de gaz utilisées pour les essais. Un travail sur le circuit de refroidissement permet en outre d’affiner la distribution de température à la surface de la cellule. Enfin, l’ajout de mécanismes de dégradation est effectué pour modéliser le vieillissement de la pile. Pour cela, deux approches différentes sont couplées, l’une basée sur des équations physiques de l’électrochimie («Bottom-Up») et l’autre sur des lois semi-empiriques («Top-Down»).Les résultats de la modélisation sont confrontés à des essais expérimentaux dédiés. En particulier, deux tests de 2000 heures en conditions aéronautiques ont été effectués, avec deux régimes de fonctionnement différents (stabilisé et dynamique). Les méthodes usuelles de caractérisations électrochimiques (spectroscopie d’impédance, voltampérométries), des analyses post-mortem ainsi que des mesures locales de densité de courant et de température réalisées durant les essais aident à la validation des modèles.En particulier, les différentes mesures montrent que le modèle développé est capable de simuler la répartition hétérogène des conditions locales dans le cœur de pile en fonction des conditions opératoires (conditions asséchantes, humides, etc.). Il permet alors de calculer le comportement de paramètres internes de la pile non accessibles par l’expérience (humidités relatives, fractions molaires, etc.). De plus, le modèle permet de retrouver l’impact de différents modes opératoires sur le vieillissement, apportant également des informations sur les mécanismes de dégradation qui agissent sur les matériaux. Enfin, des stratégies d’optimisation sont proposées pour améliorer la durée de vie de la pile, basées sur le cycle réel envisagé par Zodiac Aerospace pour l’application de la pile à combustible à bord d’un avion de ligne (hors propulsion). / In a global context of greenhouse gases emissions reduction, solutions need to be found to limit the pollution from transportation. In the aeronautics, the energy efficiency of planes can be improved by using alternative energy sources, such as fuel cells. This technology is an electrochemical device that converts hydrogen into electricity, water and heat. Nevertheless, cost and lifetime of fuel cells are weaknesses of this technology and need to be improved.As part of the use onboard commercial airplanes, analysis of a PEM fuel cell system durability is conducted, in collaboration with Zodiac Aerospace. Taking the fuel cell aging into account in the fuel cell system management is essential to limit the impact of inappropriate fuel cell core local conditions, which decrease the fuel cell lifetime. In this work, a complete study is proposed to correlate the fuel cell internal aging mechanisms (membrane degradation, catalyst dissolution) to the fuel cell local conditions which are defined partly by the system ancillaries’ performances, the power profile and the system environmental conditions. The objective is to be able to predict the fuel cell operation and its durability in order to suggest optimization strategies for the targeted application. The proposed approach is based on modeling and validated by experimental durability tests.A multi-physical model existing at the CEA is developed in this PhD to correlate the uses to the degradation mechanisms. The physical description of the fuel cell is done in this model, where electrochemical reactions, fuel cell water and gas diffusion mechanisms at micro scale and heat transfers are taken into account. Improvements are added, in order to better model the geometry of the gases distributing plates used in the tests. Besides, a work on the cooling circuit enables to refine the temperature distribution at the cell surface. Finally, degradation mechanisms are added to model the fuel cell aging. Two different approaches are used, one based on physical electrochemical equations (“Bottom-Up”) and the other one based on semi-empirical laws (“Top-Down”).Results from the modeling part are compared with dedicated tests. In particular, two tests of 2,000 hours each in aeronautical conditions are performed, with two different operating modes (stabilized and dynamic). Usual methods of electrochemical characterization (impedance spectroscopy, voltammetries), post-mortem analyses along with in-situ measurements of the current density and temperature performed during the tests help validating the model.In particular, the measures show that the developed model is able to simulate the heterogeneous distribution of the local conditions inside the fuel cell in function of the operating conditions (dry, wet, etc.). It gives the possibility to monitor the behavior of fuel cell internal parameters which are not reachable by the tests (relative humidity, molar fractions, etc.). Moreover, the model enables to find back the impact of several operating regimes on the aging, giving as well information about the degradation mechanisms acting on the materials. Last but not least, strategies are proposed to improve the fuel cell durability, based on the real cycle considered by Zodiac Aerospace for the use of the fuel cell system onboard a commercial airplane (apart from the propulsion).

This dissertation discusses the interaction between fuel cells and the DC-DC converter just connected across its terminals. For that, it presents a modified algorithm to represent the dynamic behavior of fuel cell stacks as much the current ripple effects from power converters on such cells. PEM type fuel cells (Proton Exchange Membrane) are studied to get a reasonable model of the electrochemical and electric characteristics of the involved phenomena in the generation of electric energy from fuel cells. A T filter is used as interface between the fuel cell and the DC-DC converter. This converter must prevent large current ripples going through the cell terminals as well as keeping constant the power flow between the FC and the link DC to prevent itself of possible current transient. To connect it to the grid it was used a three-phase DC-AC converter to inject or to absorb current from the grid at reduced ripple distortion and to stabilize the DC link voltage. DC current controllers were designed to curb the link DC and AC currents within reasonable limits. Validation of the model was carried out through computer simulation in order to have an evaluation of the control system behavior both for the stack and for the injection and/or absorption of energy. Also, theoretical results with practical data from a fuel stack were compared with respect to the load variation across its terminals. / Esta dissertação discute a interação entre as células de combustível e o conversor de potência conectado aos seus terminais. Para isto é apresentado um algoritmo modificado para a modelagem dinâmica de conversores chaveados tanto quanto um estudo sobre os efeitos das ondulações de corrente sobre as células. Células do tipo PEM (Proton Exchange Membrane) são estudadas, obtendo-se um modelo razoável para análise das características eletroquímicas e elétricas dos fenômenos envolvidos na geração de energia elétrica com células de combustível. Como interface utiliza-se um conversor CC-CC associado a um filtro do tipo T . Este conversor tem a função de evitar a grande ondulação de corrente absorvida pela célula bem como, manter constante o fluxo de potência entre a FC e o barramento CC evitando-se assim, possíveis transitórios nos terminais da célula. O projeto do conversor de potência prevê a conexão à rede da concessionária através de um conversor CC-CA trifásico para injetar ou absorver corrente da rede com reduzida distorção harmônica e estabilização da tensão do barramento CC. Foram projetados controladores para a corrente CC, a tensão CC e a corrente CA. Como formas de validação foram realizadas simulações para avaliar o comportamento dos sistemas de controle para a pilha e para a injeção e/ou absorção de energia. Também foram comparados os resultados teóricos com os dados práticos de uma pilha submetida à variação de carga em seus terminais.

Ce travail de thèse s’est intéressé aux mécanismes de dégradation de nanoparticules de Pt supportées sur carbone utilisées pour catalyser les réactions électrochimiques dans une pile à combustible à membrane échangeuse de protons (PEMFC) et à leur conséquences d’un point de vue cinétique. Nous avons mis en évidence les différents mécanismes (maturation d’Ostwald 3D, corrosion du support carboné, migration/agrégation des cristallites métalliques) conduisant à une perte de surface active électrochimiquement et avons trouvé des conditions permettent d’isoler chacun de ces mécanismes. En premier lieu, nous avons montré que les nanoparticules de Pt supportées sur carbone ne sont pas immobiles mais agrègent en conditions réactionnelles notamment en présence de molécules réductrices. La vitesse de ce processus varie dans l'ordre CO > CH3OH > H2 et a été reliée à (i) la baisse du travail d’adhésion engendrée par la chimisorption de ces molécules et (ii) la réduction des groupements oxygénés présents sur le support carboné natif.Nous nous sommes également intéressés au mécanisme d’électrooxydation électrochimique du Vulcan XC72, un noir de carbone classiquement utilisé dans les couches catalytiques de PEMFC. Des mesures par spectroscopie Raman ont montré que les domaines désordonnés du Vulcan XC72 (non-graphitiques, hybridation sp3) sont corrodés de façon préférentielle dans des conditions expérimentales proches de celles d’une cathode de PEMFC. Les domaines ordonnés du support carboné (carbone graphitique, hybridation sp2) sont également corrodés, la vitesse de ce processus étant largement inférieure à ce qui est observé sur les domaines désordonnés. En conséquence, les nanoparticules de Pt se détachent ou agglomèrent comme le révèlent des expériences de microscopie électronique en transmission couplées à l’électrochimie. L’ensemble de ces mécanismes de dégradation conduit à un abaissement de la densité du nombre de particules métalliques et augmente la distance entre ces dernières. Dans le chapitre IV, nous montrons que des électrocatalyseurs Pt/Sibunit electrocatalysts possédant (i) un faible chargement massique en Pt, et (ii) de grandes distances inter-particules présentant une faible activité pour la réduction du dioxygène de l’air. Le nombre moyen d’électrons transférés par molécule de dioxygène décroît bien sous la valeur théorique de 4 lorsque l’épaisseur de la couche catalytique ou le chargement massique diminue. Nous avons relié cela à un transport et à une ré-adsorption plus difficiles des intermédiaires réactionnels notamment le péroxyde d’hydrogène. Une diminution du nombre de sites catalytiques peut également engendrer une limitation des cinétiques réactionnelles par l’adsorption de l’oxygène. Au vu de l’ensemble des résultats précédents, nous avons conclu que des cristallites de plus grande taille permettraient d’améliorer la durabilité des matériaux contenus dans les couches catalytiques de PEMFC. Des nano-fils de Pt (NWs) avec une taille moyenne de cristallite de 2,1 ± 0,2 nm ont été synthétisés. Nous avons montré que la morphologie du matériau joue un rôle conséquent à la fois en termes d’activité électrocatalytique et de durabilité : les matériaux Pt NWs/C permettent une réduction de prêt de 170 mV de la surtension d’oxydation d’une monocouche de monoxyde de carbone et possèdent une activité catalytique élevée et stable pour l’électrooxydation du méthanol. Cette dernière a été attribuée à (i) l’augmentation de la masse des cristallites de Pt résultant de l’augmentation en taille (nanoparticules à nano-fils) et (ii) une surface de contact élevée avec le support carboné. Ces matériaux possèdent un potentiel intéressant pour résoudre les problèmes de durabilité rencontrés avec les matériaux 0D utilisés de façon conventionnelle. / State-of-the-art catalytic layers of proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) utilize ionomer-bonded Pt-based nanocrystallites supported on a high surface area carbon support to accelerate the rate of the hydrogen oxidation reaction at the anode, and of the oxygen reduction reaction at the cathode. Post-mortem analysis of PEMFC catalytic layers reveal that four degradation mechanisms yield Pt surface area losses (and hence decreased PEMFC performance): (i) aggregation and/or detachment of the metal nanoparticles, (ii) corrosion of the carbon support, (iii) Ostwald ripening (dissolution/redeposition of the Pt-based crystallites) yielding the formation of ionic species and (iv) chemical reduction of the Ptz+ species in ion conductors, yielding the formation of electrically disconnected Pt crystallites. A major concern of the Ph.D. was to be able to isolate the migration of the Pt nanocrystallites. For that purpose, commercial Pt/Vulcan XC 72 electrocatalysts were aged in “mild” conditions, for which the corrosion of both the Pt nanoparticles and the carbon support could not be considered dominant. Evidences were provided that the Pt/C nanoparticles are not immobile but prone to agglomerate in the presence of H2, CH3OH, and CO, three molecules of interest for PEMFCs. The migration rate of the Pt crystallites was the largest in CO-containing solution and decreased in the order CO > CH3OH > H2. We postulate that the morphological changes of the Pt/C nanoparticles may be caused by (i) a change of the work of adhesion between the metal phase and the carbon support or (ii) the reduction of the oxygen-bearing surface groups strongly interacting with the Pt nanocrystallites. We also investigated the mechanism of the electrochemical oxidation of Vulcan XC72, a carbon black conventionally used in PEMFCs. Raman spectroscopy measurements evidenced that the disordered domains of the Vulcan XC72 support (non-graphitic, sp3-hybridized) are preferentially oxidized. The ordered domains (graphitic carbon, sp2-hybridized) of the Vulcan XC72 support are also oxidized but at a much smaller rate than that observed on the non-graphitic domains. A major consequence of the oxidation of the high-surface area carbon support is the aggregation and the detachment of the supported Pt nanoparticles. In Chapter V, we used model Pt/Sibunit electrocatalysts to show that aged catalytic layers with (i) low Pt to C weight fraction, (ii) large inter-particle distance, feature bad performance for the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR). The average number of transferred electrons produced during the ORR decreases below 4 with the decrease of the catalyst layer thickness or the Pt loading. This was rationalized by considering the lower probability for H2O2 molecules (the major reaction intermediate) to be re-adsorbed and further reduced into water in the catalytic layer when the inter-particle distance decreases. Finally, Pt nanowires (NWs) with 2.1 ± 0.2 nm crystallite size were synthesized by a soft template method. Evidences were provided that the morphology of the Pt material plays a pivotal role both in terms of electrocatalytic activity/stability: the 1D Pt NWs/C demonstrate a reduction by ca. 170 mV of the CO oxidation overpotential and feature high and stable MOR activity with respect to a conventional Pt/C 20 wt. % catalyst. The enhanced durability of Pt NWs/C was rationalized by considering (i) the increase in weight of the Pt nanomaterials resulting from the increase in size (from nanoparticles to nanowires) and (ii) the enhanced contact surface area between the Pt NWs and the carbon support. The development of 1D Pt nanostructures, such as Pt NWs, hold promises to solve the durability issues faced with the 0D materials currently used in PEMFCs.Keywords: proton exchange membrane fuel cell, durability of PEMFC materials, electrochemical carbon oxidation, crystallite migration, Pt nanowires.