Enligt Bandura (1997) är self-efficacy tron på den egna förmågan att slutföra uppgifter och nå mål. Denna studie undersökte sambandet mellan upplevd beslutsfrihet under sena tonåren, upplevd stress från föräldrar under sena tonåren, upplevd optimism under sena tonåren och self-efficacy. Stickprovet på 133 studenter, varav 35 män och två av okänt kön skattade sina upplevelser och self-efficacy. En multipel hierarkisk regressionsanalys visade att self-efficacy korrelerade positivt med både beslutsfrihet och optimism vilket gav stöd för hypotes 1 och 3. Variationen i de oberoende variablerna och kontrollvariablerna kunde förklara 12% av variationen i self-efficacy. Sambandet mellan hög self-efficacy och hög upplevd grad av beslutsfrihet under sena tonåren förklarades som socialt stöd i form av tillit från föräldrarna. Sambandet mellan self-efficacy och upplevd grad av optimism under sena tonåren förklarades som att optimism ökar prestationen och chansen för framgångar. Studien föreslog att föräldrar bör ge sina tonåringar beslutsfrihet för att stärka self-efficacy.

<p>Over the last decades intense debates have taken place, in the mass media, regarding the child-parent relation within sport. Questions have been raised if parent’s involvement can be a source of pressure for children and youth. In Sweden relatively little research have been undertaken to study this problem.</p><p>Therefore the aim of this thesis is:</p><p>- to describe and analyse children’s and youth’s experiences of parental involvement within the sport milieu, focusing on parental pressure.</p><p>The purpose has also led to the following formulated problems:</p><p>- How do children and youth experience parent’s presence, actions and open reactions toward young athletes in the sport milieu?</p><p>- What does it mean for young athletes to experience parental pressure?</p><p>Parents can unintentionally impose pressure on children just by trying too hard to be a good sport parent. Earlier research has proposed that young athletes experience pressure from parents when there is an imbalance between the experienced intensity in the parental involvement and what they desire. Given this background parental pressure was defined as: young athlete’s experiences of feelings of insufficiency in sport, which is emanated from parent’s, both hidden and outspoken, demands and expectations to achieve within the sport milieu”. For this thesis a critical factor in the theoretical framework is young athlete’s subjective experiences of parents, and especially parental pressure, in the public sport milieu.</p><p>The data collection consisted of both questionnaires and interviews. The respondents (n=601, age 8 to 16) were selected from twelve of the most popular sports for children and youth (football, handball, swimming, equestrian sport, tennis, floor hockey, athletics, golf, ice hockey, gymnastics, figure skating and table tennis. The data from the interviews was collected from a sample of twelve young athletes (age 10 to14).</p><p>The results showed support for how children in general are happy and satisfied with their parent’s involvement (81%). However it was also found that there was a minority group of 19% that indicated experiences of high parental pressure. In the results there were also tendencies that showed how certain sports (tennis, swimming, golf and equestrian sport) scored higher on the parental pressure scale than others. The respondents who scored low (under the mean) on the self-perception scale showed tendencies to score high on the parental pressure scale (Rho= -.38, p<.01). The factors connected to parental pressure, highlighted in the interviews, were also emphasized in an open-ended question.</p><p>Stronger guiding principles, reinforced motivation and designed education dealing with these subjects in organised sport are inevitable. Otherwise organised youth sport will never succeed in oppressing the primary sources of children’s experiences of parental pressure.</p>

Over the last decades intense debates have taken place, in the mass media, regarding the child-parent relation within sport. Questions have been raised if parent’s involvement can be a source of pressure for children and youth. In Sweden relatively little research have been undertaken to study this problem. Therefore the aim of this thesis is: - to describe and analyse children’s and youth’s experiences of parental involvement within the sport milieu, focusing on parental pressure. The purpose has also led to the following formulated problems: - How do children and youth experience parent’s presence, actions and open reactions toward young athletes in the sport milieu? - What does it mean for young athletes to experience parental pressure? Parents can unintentionally impose pressure on children just by trying too hard to be a good sport parent. Earlier research has proposed that young athletes experience pressure from parents when there is an imbalance between the experienced intensity in the parental involvement and what they desire. Given this background parental pressure was defined as: young athlete’s experiences of feelings of insufficiency in sport, which is emanated from parent’s, both hidden and outspoken, demands and expectations to achieve within the sport milieu”. For this thesis a critical factor in the theoretical framework is young athlete’s subjective experiences of parents, and especially parental pressure, in the public sport milieu. The data collection consisted of both questionnaires and interviews. The respondents (n=601, age 8 to 16) were selected from twelve of the most popular sports for children and youth (football, handball, swimming, equestrian sport, tennis, floor hockey, athletics, golf, ice hockey, gymnastics, figure skating and table tennis. The data from the interviews was collected from a sample of twelve young athletes (age 10 to14). The results showed support for how children in general are happy and satisfied with their parent’s involvement (81%). However it was also found that there was a minority group of 19% that indicated experiences of high parental pressure. In the results there were also tendencies that showed how certain sports (tennis, swimming, golf and equestrian sport) scored higher on the parental pressure scale than others. The respondents who scored low (under the mean) on the self-perception scale showed tendencies to score high on the parental pressure scale (Rho= -.38, p&lt;.01). The factors connected to parental pressure, highlighted in the interviews, were also emphasized in an open-ended question. Stronger guiding principles, reinforced motivation and designed education dealing with these subjects in organised sport are inevitable. Otherwise organised youth sport will never succeed in oppressing the primary sources of children’s experiences of parental pressure.

abstract: Academic achievement among Asians has been widely recognized in the literature, but the costs of this success may be tied to significant mental health consequences. Three samples of undergraduate students in India were recruited from cities such as Chennai, Kerala, and Delhi totaling 608 (303 male, 301 females). Both online and in class recruitment occurred. There were three main purposes of this study: 1) to construct a quantitative measure of parental pressure, 2) to evaluate whether self-esteem was a potential buffer of the negative impacts of parental pressure and academic stress, and 3) to understand better the factors impacting suicidality among adolescents in India by testing a path model of possible predictors suggested by the literature. Prevalence data of suicidal ideation and attempt history were also collected. Reporting on their experience over the past six months, 14.5% (n = 82) of the participants endorsed suicidal ideation and 12.3% (n = 69) of the participants admitted to having deliberately attempted to hurt or kill themselves. Five constructs were explored in this study: parental pressure, academic stress, depression, suicidality, and self-esteem. The Parental Pressure for Success Scale, designed for this study, was used to measure parental pressure. The Educational Stress Scale-Adolescents was used to measure academic stress. The Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression scale was used to measure depressive symptomology. Two items from the Youth Self-Report Checklist were used as a measure of suicidality in the past six months. The Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale was used to measure global self-esteem. Preliminary support for the reliability and validity of the Parental Pressure for Success Scale was found. While self-esteem was not a significant moderator in this study, it was a predictor of both stress and depression. Results of the path analysis indicated that parental pressure predicted academic stress, stress predicted depression, and depression predicted suicidality. Parental pressure indirectly predicted suicidality through academic stress and depression. Results were discussed in the context of cultural influences on study findings such as the central role of parents in the family unit, the impact of cultural valuing of education, collectivistic society, and the Hindu concept of dharma, or duty. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Counseling Psychology 2014

Under en stor del av 2000-talet så har det debatterats och gjorts flera reportage i massmedia om ungdomars och föräldrars relationer inom idrottsvärlden. Forskningsfrågorna i denna studie är(1), På vilket sätt upplever fotbollsspelande ungdomar i åldern 15-16 engagemanget från deras föräldrar?  (2), Finns det någon skillnad mellan mammor och pappor i graden av engagemang och föräldrapress/stöd gentemot ungdomarna? Genom att använda oss av klusterurval valdes tre fotbollsföreningar i Örebro ut. Datainsamlingen bestod av enkätfrågor till 54 ungdomar och 72 föräldrar samt intervjuer med två tränare. Studien visade på att en högre grad av föräldraengagemang i ungdomens idrottande resulterade i att ungdomen upplevde mer stöd. Ungdomarna upplevde inte mycket föräldrapress. Resultaten i studien kan inte säkerställas utan får fungera som en anvisning för framtida studier. / Parent’s involvement in youth sport has in the majority of studies focused on two phenomenons, parental pressure and support, and so will this study. The study has two research questions: (1), In what way do young football-playing people in the age of 15-16 experience the involvement of their parents? (2), Is there a difference between mothers and fathers in the level of involvement and parental pressure/support on their youngsters? By conducting a cluster random sampling three clubs from Örebro were selected. The data collection consisted of questionnaires for 54 young people and 72 parents as well as interviews with two coaches. The study showed that a higher degree of parental involvement in youth sports resulted in the youth experiencing more support. Youth people did not experience much parental pressure. As a conclusion the findings in this study cannot be supported but instead work as a template for future studies.

Denna uppsats lägger sitt fokus på de som oftast står idrottaren närmast, föräldrarna. Att vara idrottsförälder idag är inte bara tidskrävande och kräver en hel del ekonomiska resurser, det finns även en press på dagens föräldrar att passa in, att följa normen och att välja rätt vägar för sitt barn. Syftet med denna studie är att utforska idrottsföräldrars upplevelser och erfarenheter om engagemang och involvering i barn- och ungdomsidrott och viktiga frågeställningar var bland annat om det kan bli för mycket av det goda engagemanget och om detta i sin tur sätter press på barnet. En kvalitativ metod i form av fokusgruppsintervjuer användes. Denna uppsats tar stöd i Cotés teoretiska modell om hur man går från deliberate play till deliberate practice, för att bibehålla motivationen till ett livslångt idrottande. Genom att barnet får prova på flera idrotter, ökar sannolikheten att intresset för idrott finns kvar även i framtiden och barnet får även tillhöra den gemenskap som inte enbart ökar den sociala kompetensen hos barnet, men även håller barnet borta från skärmtid och andra oönskade aktiviteter.Studien visar att föräldrar värderar barnens idrottande högt. Idrottandet och medlemskapet i en förening ses som en investering i barnets mående, såväl psykiskt som fysiskt, men idrottsföreningarna fungerar även som en socialisationsmiljö. Det stora engagemang i form av tid och de pengar som föräldrarna lägger på barnens idrottsintresse, upplever föräldrarna att de får valuta för i barnens glädje. Idrottandet har blivit en norm och för studiens föräldrar var det otänkbart att deras barn skulle sluta med all idrott. Föräldrarna vill inte känna att de pressar sina barn och upplever det som en fin linje mellan att vara stöttande och pressande. Föräldrar upplever det svårt att veta var gränsen går då det finns så mycket att välja mellan i och med den kommersialiserade idrotten. Även barnen kan uppleva att de inte kan sluta med sin idrott för att föräldrarna varit så engagerade och barnen vill inte göra dem besvikna. / This essay focuses on those who are most often closest to the athlete, the parents. Being a sports parent today is not only time consuming and requires a lot of financial resources, there is also a pressure on today's parents to fit in, to follow the norm and to choose the right paths for their child. The purpose of this study is to explore sports parents' experiences and experiences of commitment and involvement in children's and youth sports and important questions were, among other things, whether there can be too much of the good commitment and whether this in turn puts pressure on the child. A qualitative method in the form of focus group interviews was used. This essay is supported by Coté's theoretical model of how to go from deliberate play to deliberate practice, in order to maintain the motivation for lifelong sports. By allowing the child to try different sports, the probability increases that the interest in sports remains in the future and the child also belongs to the community that not only increases the child's social skills, but also keeps the child away from screen time and other unwanted activities.The study shows that parents value their children's sports highly. Sports and membership in an association are seen as an investment in the child's state, both mentally and physically, but the sports associations also function as a socialization environment. The great commitment in the form of time and the money that the parents spend on the children's interest in sports, the parents feel that they get value for in the children's joy. Sports have become a norm and for the parents of the study, it was unthinkable that their children would stop all sports. Parents do not want to feel that they are pressuring their children and experience it as a fine line between being supportive and pressing. Parents find it difficult to know where the line goes as there is so much to choose from with commercialized sports. Even the children may feel that they cannot quit their sport because the parents have been so involved and the children do not want to disappoint them.

Trygg-bas scripts är mentala anknytningsrepresentationer som bildas och utvecklas hos individen utifrån dess samvaro med anknytningsperson(er). Studiens syfte var att undersöka förekomst av idrottsrelaterade (tävlings) script och sambandet mellan trygg-bas styrka i barnens eventuella sporttävlingsscript, trygg-bas generellt och koherens i barnets anknytningsrepresentation. Dessutom söktes förståelse för barns och föräldrars involvering och upplevelse av barnets idrottsaktivitet. Föräldrapress undersöktes från både barn- och föräldraperspektiv. Slutligen diskuterades samband mellan barnets anknytning och föräldrapress. Barnen testades för scriptkunskap (Secure Base Script Test, SBST; Psouni &amp; Apetroaia, 2011), samt blev intervjuade (Friends and Family Interview, FFI; Steele &amp; Steele, 2005). Idrottsenkäter besvarades av barn och föräldrar. Idrottsaktiva skolbarn i åldern 9-12 år (N = 86) och föräldrar (N = 74) deltog. Nivåerna av föräldrapress är låga, dock något högre sett från barnens perspektiv. Signifikanta, negativa korrelationer mellan trygg anknytning och föräldrapress rapporteras. Föräldrarnas sensitivitet och/eller barnens balanserade emotionssystem kan vara förklaringar. Samband mellan barnens generella trygg-bas scripts och ett sporttävlingsscript rapporteras. Scriptkunskap för att tackla sporttävlingar var högre för trygga än för otrygga barn (F(1,40) = 5.05, p = .03, partiell η2 = .11). Vilket tyder på att tryggt anknutna barn har en trygg-bas kunskap som är nyttig i idrottssituationer, vilket framhäver anknytningsteorins relevans för sportpsykologi. / Secure base scripts are mental attachment representations that develop in the individual during interactions with caregiver(s). In the study we assessed the importance of attachment representation coherence, scripted attachment knowledge and, for children’s scripted knowledge of coping in a sports competition. Besides, a sport enquiry investigating children’s and parental involvement and experience in the child’s sports activities. Parental pressure from both the child and parents perspective was evaluated. Finally, any connection between the child’s attachment and parental pressure was discussed. Children were interviewed (Friends and Family Interview, FFI; Steele &amp; Steele, 2005) and, tested for scripted attachment knowledge (Secure Base Script Test, SBST; Psouni &amp; Apetroaia, 2011). Sports questionnaires were answered by children and parents. School children active in sport, 9-12 years (N = 86) and parents (N = 74) participated. The level of parental pressure is low seen from both the child and parents perspective, anyhow, the children reporting a slightly higher level of pressure. Significant, negative correlations between secure attachment and parental pressure are reported. Parental sensitivity and/or the secure children’s balanced emotional system might be explanations. Scripted knowledge of coping in sports competitions predicted by children’s scripted attachment knowledge (SBST) is reported. Scripted knowledge of coping in sports competitions was higher for Secure than for Insecure children (F(1,40) = 5.05, p = .03, partial η2 = .11). Our findings suggest that securely attached children have an overarching secure base knowledge which is particularly useful in sports situations, thereby highlighting the relevance of attachment theory for sports education and sports psychology.

Parents in sports and the children in sports are a big part of the sports community. Therelationship between children and parents is a big part for the children. Today a lot ofchildren feel pressure in their early ages. More and more parents push their children indifferent ways. This can lead to negative consequences for the children. Therefore, thisessay is originated from the children's perspective in the different areas expectations,pressure and relationship.The purpose of this essay was to find out to what extent and in what way athletes feelpressure from their parents, based both on parents who are coaches for their childrenand parents who are not. There will be interviews of coaches and children, both throughgroup interviews and individual interviews.The essay aim to answer following questions: • How are children affected by their parents regarding pressure, expectations andrelationships? • How are children affected by having their parents as a coach regarding pressure,expectations and relationships? • What challenges do parents see in training their own child? The results showed that some children felt pressure whereas other did not. There werealso different types of pressure relating to, for example, performance, be present attraining and to behave. Moreover, there was subconscious pressure for the children,either to perform by scoring a lot of goals or that the parent put pressure on the child,even if it wasn ́t noticed.

Non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) is increasingly understood as representing a public health concern and a behavioral marker of emotional and psychological distress among young people. NSSI is prevalent during the period of young adulthood, including among emerging adults pursuing a university education, yet the vulnerability factors associated with NSSI in this population merit more in-depth and contextualized investigation. The current dissertation's overarching objective was to better understand the risk context surrounding university students' engagement in NSSI. Using a sample of 2,579 students (75.2% female; Mage=18.97; SDage=1.54), Study 1 first explored the roles of parental (mother and father pressure) and intrapersonal (emotion dysregulation, academic coping, perfectionism subtypes) risk factors in university students’ likelihood and frequency of engagement in NSSI in the past year. An integrated latent structural equation model revealed that higher levels of perceived mother and father pressure were associated with a greater likelihood of past-year NSSI engagement in the university student sample. Among intrapersonal risk factors, only emotion dysregulation was found to be associated with higher NSSI likelihood and frequency. Building upon these results, Study 2 sought to narrow in further on understanding the emotion regulation profiles of university students with a past-year history of NSSI. Using a person-centered statistical approach, university students who reported having engaged in NSSI within the past year (n = 479; 83.8% female; Mage = 18.77; SDage = 1.43) were classified into latent profiles based on their self-perceived difficulties in regulating both positive and negative emotions. Independent samples of students who had a past history of NSSI but had not self-injured within the previous year (n = 439; 82.9% females; Mage = 19.03, SDage = 1.62) and who had no history of NSSI (n = 1551; 69.9% females; Mage = 19.02, SDage = 1.55) were included as comparison groups. Latent cluster analyses uncovered three emotion regulation profiles within the NSSI sample - the Average Difficulties (47.4%), Dysregulated (33.0%), and Low Difficulties (19.6%) profiles - each of which differed meaningfully from both comparison samples on mean levels of emotion regulation difficulties. Students across the three profiles also differed in their self-reported experiences with parents, particularly with fathers (perceived pressure, antipathy, unresolved attachment, psychological control), and in the extent to which they felt alienated from parents. Lastly, students across profiles differed in the frequency, methods, functions, and addictive properties of their NSSI. Taken together, findings from the current dissertation expanded our awareness of vulnerability factors for NSSI that have historically been understudied (e.g., parental pressure, father-child relationships, dysregulated positive emotions), while also bringing into focus the notion that even well-established NSSI risk factors (emotion regulation difficulties) can manifest quite heterogeneously amongst university students with a history of self-injurious behavior.