The manufacture of photovoltaic (PV) system components has a role to play in the industrialisation and poverty reduction strategies of developing countries. It has also been suggested that small scale local manufacture of balance of systems components has the potential to improve the maintenance, installation and use of the technology. However, PV is a complex technology and most developing countries have not been able to build the capabilities required to manufacture PV system components of an appropriate quality and price, either in the modern or small scale sectors. The factors that determine the success of PV manufacturers in developing countries are therefore of interest. Previous studies on learning in the PV industry have been focused on industry-wide concerns and have not explicitly addressed enterprise-level capability building or challenges specific to developing countries. In particular, there has been very little published about small scale PV manufacture. This thesis therefore aims to improve understanding of the factors that influence capability building, with a view to assisting decision making in relation to PV manufacture in developing countries. The aims of the study have been fulfilled by the development and assessment of a software simulation training tool for PV cell production line engineers, the development of an analysis framework, and application of it to several case study PV enterprises. Through the application of the framework to the case studies, it has been possible to assess the role of software simulations, the suitability of countries with different types of infrastructure for hosting PV manufacturing and the institutional arrangements or interventions that could be used to promote capability building for PV manufacturers in developing countries. While further case studies are required to make more than tentative conclusions, the framework developed and tested in this thesis may now be used as a tool to systematically and rapidly analyse the appropriateness of different types of PV manufacture in particular countries, to identify the weaknesses in their PV technological systems and therefore to suggest where resources should be invested and where appropriate institutional changes could be made. The simulation software has been demonstrated to be an effective capability building tool, thus providing one of the key elements required for successful manufacturing.

Η διπλωματική μεταπτυχιακή εργασία ειδίκευσης παρουσιάζει μελέτη σε φωτοευαισθητοποιημένα ηλιακά κύτταρα, τα οποία μετατρέπουν την ηλιακή ακτινοβολία σε ηλεκτρική ενέργεια. Στο θεωρητικό μέρος παρουσιάζεται βιβλιογραφική ανασκόπηση των φωτοβολταϊκών κυττάρων και γίνεται εμβάθυνση στον μηχανισμό λειτουργίας των φωτοευαισθητοποιημένων ηλιακών κυττάρων με χρωστική ουσία (Dye-sensitized Solar Cells, DSSC). Αναλύονται τα υλικά που χρησιμοποιούνται για την σύνθεση του ηλιακού κυττάρου: υποστρώματα από Indium-Tin Oxide (ITO), υμένιο από νανο-κρυσταλλικό διοξείδιο του τιτανίου (TiO2), οργανικές χρωστικές ουσίες, υγρός/στερεός ηλεκτρολύτης ιωδίου και αντιηλεκτρόδιο. Επιπλέον, περιγράφονται πειραματικές διατάξεις από ελληνικά και διεθνή εργαστήρια τα οποία παρουσιάζουν τις νέες εξελίξεις στον τομέα των φωτοευαίσθητων φωτοβολταϊκών. Στο πειραματικό μέρος περιγράφεται η διαδικασία σύνθεσης φωτοευαίσθητων ηλιακών κυττάρων στο εργαστήριο. Γίνεται μελέτη των επιμέρους υλικών και σύνθεση νέων ηλιακών κυττάρων, έτσι ώστε να επιτευχθεί αύξηση της απόδοσης και της σταθερότητας των υποστρωμάτων τους. Σύμφωνα με την θεωρία Shockley–Queisser, η μέγιστη θεωρητική απόδοση ενός ηλιακού κυττάρου φτάνει το 30% και με επόμενες παρόμοιες μεθόδους υπολογίσθηκε ότι μπορεί να φτάσει το 68%. Παρουσιάζονται επιπλέον, πειραματικές διατάξεις με εφαρμογή χαμηλοδιάστατου ημιαγωγού, με σκοπό την αύξηση της απόδοσης και ταυτόχρονα την μείωση του υλικού και του κόστους του φωτοβολταϊκού. Η μελέτη και ο χαρακτηρισμός των επιμέρους υλικών έγινε με την χρήση τεχνικών οργάνων, όπως: XRD, UV, PL, SEM. Η μέτρηση της απόδοσης των ηλιακών κυττάρων πραγματοποιήθηκε σε εσωτερικό σκοτεινό χώρο με προσομοίωση του ηλιακού φωτός με την χρήση του ηλεκτρομέτρου και υπολογίστηκαν οι αποδόσεις των φωτοβολταϊκών κυττάρων. / The present master thesis presents a study on photo-sensitized solar cells, which convert solar radiation into electricity. The theoretical part includes a literature of relevant works on solar cells and a description of the operation mechanism of photo-sensitized solar cells using pigment (Dye-sensitized solar cells, DSSC). The materials used for the fabrication of solar cell were Indium-Tin Oxide (ITO) for the substrate, thin film from nanoparticles of titanium dioxide (TiO2), organic pigments, liquid/solid iodide electrolyte and counter electrode. In addition, testing devices and cell fabrication procedures, from national and international laboratories covering the developments in the field of photosensitive solar cells, are also included. In the experimental part, the procedure for the synthesis of photo-sensitized solar cells is extensively described. The used materials and the synthesis mode to achieve new cell types with increased efficiencies and substrate stability are presented. According to Shockley-Queisser theory, the theoretically maximum efficiency of solar cell is up to 30%, which in other methods it has been extended to 68%. In the same part, experimental procedures for other semiconductor application are additionally presented, aiming to a reduction in material and cost. The study and the characterization of the used materials were performed by using suitable equipment as XRD, UV, PL and SEM. The solar cell efficiency was measured in a dark room using electrometer and the efficiency were obtained.

The thesis deals with the problems of alternative energy sources with focus on solar energy sources in present practice. The thesis introduction explains the reasons of the changes in the global fuel-energy balance and their adverse effects, characterizes individual alternative energy sources and their practical applicability. The main focus is on exploitation of solar energy. After explaining the principle of thermonuclear reactions as the source of energy in the Sun, the thesis analyses the question of production of photovoltaic cells and a solar module. It describes the types of commonly used accumulators, charges and voltage transformers. It points out all factors, which must be taken into account when handling solar panels in practice. In the last chapter, it in particular deals with the didactic instructions for teaching the topic of alternative energy sources at elementary schools, as well as the need for introduction of the mentioned topic to teacher colleges.

Une cellule photovoltaïque organique (OPV) consiste en un empilement de couches minces et comporte une électrode transparente, constituée le plus souvent par une couche mince d’oxyde d’indium dopé à l’étain (ITO). Des matériaux alternatifs sans indium, déposables par voie liquide à l’air ambiant, et sur de grandes surfaces souples plus adaptées à la filière OPV, sont actuellement l’objet d’un grand nombre de recherches. Les nanofils d’argent (Ag NWs) représentent un sérieux candidat pour remplacer l’ITO et sont l’objet de ce travail de thèse. Une méthode de dépôt des Ag NWs par spray à air sur des substrats de PET a été développée en vue de réaliser des films conducteurs et transparents sur une grande surface souple. Puis ces électrodes transparentes ont été intégrées dans des cellules OPV sur substrat souple avec des rendements comparables à l’ITO. Les dépôts par voie liquide ont été privilégiés (spray-coating, Dr Blade), excepté pour l’électrode supérieure en argent, évaporée sous vide. Enfin les cellules ont été interconnectées en série pour former un module OPV, plus efficace en termes de puissance électrique délivrée. Une étude sur l’ablation sélective de couches de l’empilement OPV par laser est également présentée pour la fabrication de modules. / An organic photovoltaic (OPV) cell consists of a thin-layer stack which includes a transparent electrode, usually made of indium tin-doped oxide (ITO). Alternative, indium-free materials, deposited in air with a wet deposition process on large, flexible substrates that are more compatible with the OPV field are currently widely investigated. Silver nanowires (Ag NWs), which represent a serious candidate to replace ITO, are the subject of this thesis. In this work a method to deposit Ag NWs on PET substrates by air spray-coating has been developed : efficient patterned conductive and transparent coatings could be processed on a large, flexible substrate. This transparent electrode was then integrated in flexible and large area OPV cells, with efficiencies comparable to ITO. Wet deposition techniques were preferred except for the silver top electrode, evaporated under vacuum. OPV cells were eventually interconnected in series in order to make an OPV module, delivering a higher electrical output. A study on selective laser ablation of layers in the OPV stack is also shown towards module processing.

La solution pour l'énergie génératrice issue de sources non polluantes configure un problème mondial, indéterminé, complexe et progressif. Et certainement, passe par la diversification de la matrice énergétique. La diversification signifie non seulement que des sources différentes sont converties en énergie utile, comme l'électricité, mais aussi décentraliser la production d'énergie afin de s'adapter à une plus grande adéquation de la demande, qui est décentralisée aussi. La Génération Distribuée propose ce type de développement, mais pour accroître sa pénétration, plusieurs obstacles techniques doivent être surpassés. L'un d'entre eux est lié aux systèmes de conversion, qui doivent être plus flexibles, modulaires, efficaces et compatibles avec les différentes sources d'énergie, car ils sont très spécifiques pour une certaine zone. La présente étude pousse ses efforts vers cette direction, c'est-à-dire comportant un système avec plusieurs entrées pour combiner différentes sources d'énergie renouvelables en un seul et efficace convertisseur de puissance pour la connexion au réseau. Elle porte sur la conception et le contrôle d'un système de production hybride de 11,7 kW utilisant des panneaux solaires photovoltaïques et une éolienne. Un convertisseur multicellulaire divisé en deux parties réalise la conversion: Convertisseur Côté Génération (GSC) et Convertisseur Côté Réseau (MSC). Les deux convertisseurs élévateurs (boost) responsables de la conversion photovoltaïque et du redresseur et de boost du générateur éolien, ainsi que les inductances d'entrée et les condensateurs, effectuent le GSC. La GSC permet la conversion en une tension de liaison CC fixe, mais garantit également la commande indépendante pour chaque entrée permettant le suivi du point de puissance maximum des panneaux et de l'éolienne. De l'autre côté, le MSC monophasé a quatre cellules effectue la connexion au réseau à travers un filtre LCL. Ce filtre utilise un Intercell Transformers (ICT) ou inducteurs couplés magnétiquement dans la première inductance pour réduire l'ondulation individuelle actuelle générée par la commutation. Le MSC contrôle la tension de la liaison CC et, ce faisant, il permet le flux de puissance des éléments de génération vers le réseau. / The solution for the generating energy derived from non-polluting sources configures a worldwide problem, which is undetermined, complex, and gradual; and certainly, passes through the diversification of the energetic matrix. Diversification means not only having different sources converted into useful energy, like the electricity, but also decentralizing the energy generation in order to fit with higher adequacy the demand, which is decentralized too. Distributed Generation proposes this sort of development but in order to increase its penetration several technical barriers must be overpassed. One of them is related to the conversion systems, which must be more flexible, modular, efficient and compatible with the different energy sources, since they are very specific for a certain area. The present study drives its efforts towards this direction, i.e. having a system with several inputs for combining different renewable energy sources into a single and efficient power converter for the grid connection. It focuses on the design and control of an 11.7 kW hybrid renewable generation system, which contains two parallel circuits of photovoltaic panels and a wind turbine. A multicell converter divided in two stages accomplishes the convertion: Generation Side Converter (GSC) and Mains Side Converter (MSC). Two boost converters responsible for the photovoltaic generation and a rectifier and a third boost, for the wind constitue the GSC. It allows the conversion to the fixed output DC voltage, controlling individually and performing the maximum power point tracking in each input. On the other side, the single-phase 4- cell MSC accomplishes the connection to the grid through an LCL filter. This filter uses an Intercell Transformer (ICT) in the first inductor for reducing the individual ripple generated by the swicthing. The MSC controls the DC-link voltage and, by doing that, it allows the power flow from the generation elements to the network.

Le travail de la thèse proposé consiste à étudier, caractériser et modéliser la performance et la fiabilité de composants semi-conducteurs sous conditions extrêmes c’est à dire pendant et après que ces composants ont subi un stress électrique, un stress thermique voire les deux stress en même temps. Les composants semi-conducteurs que nous avons étudiés sont des modules photovoltaïques en silicium monocristallin pour des applications dans les énergies renouvelables. Dans cette étude, ces composants ont été soumis à plusieurs types de dégradations générant des défauts localisés dans la structure des composants. Dans un premier temps, des études approfondies des caractéristiques I(V) et C(V) et des paramètres électriques des modules solaires photovoltaïques ont été réalisées en testant une série de modules sous différentes conditions environnementales afin de fournir des données pertinentes pouvant être utiles pour l'évaluation des performances, la modélisation du fonctionnement et pour la mise en œuvre correcte et complète des modules photovoltaïques. Ces caractérisations ont été complétées par l’étude des défauts créés à l’interface et dans les structures des modules photovoltaïques par les différents stress sur la base de mesures effectuées sur ces mêmes cellules par la technique Deep Level Transient Spectroscopy (DLTS). Grâce à cette technique, nous avons identifié et localisé ces défauts au sein du composant, en déterminant leur énergie d’activation et leur section efficace de capture. Les résultats de notre étude montrent ainsi l’importance des conditions de fonctionnement sur les performances instantanées et sur le long terme des systèmes photovoltaïques. Ils peuvent être exploitables directement dans la conception même des modules silicium voire transposable, en suivant la méthodologie de l’étude que nous proposons à de nouvelles technologies de modules / The objective of this work aim to study the performance, reliability of semiconductor structures after their operation under extreme conditions, during and after electrical stress, thermal stress, and combined electro thermal stresses. The studied semiconductor structures are photovoltaic cells for applications in the field of renewable energies. These devices have been exposed to several types of degradation generating localized defects in the structures. The I (V) and C (V) characteristics and electrical parameters have been studied before and after each stress case. The Deep Level Transient Spectroscopy (DLTS) was used as advanced technique for tracking the defects created at the interface and in the bulk structures. The DLTS technique allows identifying and locating these defects within the devices, by determining their activation energy and their capture cross-Section

Thesis (DTech (Mechanical Engineering))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2017. / This thesis contains innovations that could help homesteads in sub-Sahara Africa (SSA) to ‘harvest’ more energy from flat solar energy collection surfaces. The thesis makes the assumption that universal resolution of energy poverty is a long term issue – and may not realistically be achieved using the traditional electrification route of: Fossil fuel/Hydro potential → electricity → transmission/distribution → paid for/free usage. Using a combination of literature search, Transient System Simulation (TRNSYS) modelling and experimental validation, the thesis notes the bi-hemispherical tropical location of most of the region and the abundant solar resource. It therefore advocates extensive use of the resource at home level for both electricity generation, and fluid heating/preheating purposes. Using mathematical models, the thesis critically examines relationships among energy incidence, transformation and yield from a flat surface for both Photovoltaic (PV) and Solar Thermal (ST) usage. It suggests the first set of innovations for the region: the two azimuths installations. The second set uses TRNSYS and Operations Research (OR) modelling to optimise selection of PV equipment meeting a starter–home’s energy loads throughout the region. Recommendations for both sets of innovations are presented in the form of colour coded maps. The third innovation in the thesis is the patented gravity driven, hydro-mechanical solar tracker, a novel solar tracking device in three different operation and control modes. In summary, one patent, 4 journal papers and 5 peer-reviewed international conference papers comprise the work.

Orientador: José Alexandre Diniz / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Elétrica e de Computação / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-21T10:50:41Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Silva_AudreyRoberto_M.pdf: 3023922 bytes, checksum: ee750f675d01f2b3ceebd5d74149b16e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012 / Resumo: Este trabalho apresenta o desenvolvimento de células fotovoltaicas de junção n+/p em substratos de Si com processos de fabricação totalmente compatíveis com a tecnologia CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor). Os processos compatíveis desenvolvidos neste trabalho sao as técnicas: i) de texturização da superfície do Si, com reflexao da superficie texturizada de 15% obtida com a formação de micro-pirâmides (alturas entre 3 e 7 ?m), utilizando-se solução alcalina de NH4OH (hidróxido de amônia), que e livre da contaminação indesejável por íons de Na+ e K+ quando se utiliza soluções tradicionais de NaOH e de KOH, respectivamente, e ii) de deposição ECR-CVD (Electron Cyclotron Resonance - Chemical Vapor Deposition) da camada antirrefletora (ARC) de SiNX (nitreto de silício), que e executada em temperatura ambiente, portanto pode ser feita apos a finalização da célula sem danificar trilhas metálicas e alterar a profundidade da junção n+/p. A caracterização desta camada ARC mostrou que o nitreto tem índice de refração de 1,92 e refletância mínima de 1,03%, o que e um excelente resultado para uso em células solares (ou fotovoltaicas). Foram fabricadas cinco series de células fotovoltaicas, utilizando-se a texturização com NH4OH e a camada antirrefletora de nitreto de Si. Em quatro series utilizou-se o processo de implantação de íons de fósforo (31P+), com posterior recozimento, para a formação da região n+, enquanto que na quinta serie foi utilizado o processo de difusão térmica. As eficiências máximas para as células fabricadas são de 9% e de 12%, respectivamente, para as células feitas utilizando os processos de implantação e de difusão térmica, indicando que a implantação de íons causa danos na rede cristalina do silício, que o posterior recozimento não consegue corrigir, o que reduz a eficiência da célula / Abstract: This work presents the development of photovoltaic cells based on n+/p junction in Si substrates, with fully compatible fabrication processes with CMOS technology. The compatible processes, which are developed in this study, are the techniques: i) of Si surface texturing, with the textured surface reflection of 15% obtained by the formation of micro-pyramids (heights between 3 and 7 ?m) using NH4OH (ammonium hydroxide) alkaline solution, which is free of undesirable contamination by Na + and K + ions, when NaOH and KOH traditional solutions are used, respectively, and ii) of the ECR-CVD (Electron Cyclotron Resonance - Chemical Vapor Deposition) deposition of SiNx (silicon nitride) anti-reflective coating (ARC), which is carried out at room temperature and can be performed after the end of cell fabrication without damage on metallic tracks and without variation of n+/p junction depth. The ARC coating characterization presented that the silicon nitride has a refractive index of 1.92 and a minimum reflectance of 1.03%, which is an excellent result for application in solar (or photovoltaic) cells. Five series of photovoltaic cells were fabricated, using the NH4OH solution texturing and the silicon nitride antireflective coating. In the first four series, phosphorus (31P+) ion implantation process, with subsequent annealing to get the region n+, was used, while, in the fifth series was used the thermal diffusion process. The maximum efficiency values are of 9% and 12%, respectively, for cells, which were fabricated using the ion implantation and thermal diffusion processes, indicating that the ion implantation damages the silicon crystal lattice and the subsequent annealing cannot rectify, which reduces the cell efficiency / Mestrado / Eletrônica, Microeletrônica e Optoeletrônica / Mestre em Engenharia Elétrica

Les phénomènes quantiques des nanostructures peuvent être une opportunité pour le développement d’une nouvelle génération de cellules photovoltaïques. Ce travail décrit la synthèse et les caractérisations de nanoparticules de silicium dans une matrice d’oxynitrure de silicium. Il est possible d’obtenir des nanoparticules de silicium de diamètre compris entre 3 et 7 nm dans des matrices allant du nitrure de silicium à l’oxyde de silicium. Les propriétés des nanoparticules dépendent très fortement de la composition de la matrice. Afin d’accroître la conduction dans ces couches diélectriques, nous avons effectué un dopage électrique par implantation ionique. La localisation et la densité des ions implantés ont été observées par des techniques associées de microscopie électronique en transmission et de rayons X. Une augmentation de la conduction a été démontrée lors du dopage permettant d’observer un effet photovoltaïque sur une structure comportant des nanoparticules de silicium. / Quantum effects in nanostructures exhibit properties that can be very useful for the development of a new generation of solar cells. We investigated the synthesis of silicon nanostructures in silicon oxynitride made by a plasma enhanced chemical vapour deposition technique. Thus, silicon nanoparticles of diameter between 3 and 7 nm were obtained in different matrix ranging from silicon oxide to silicon nitride. The properties highly depend on the composition of the matrix. We also study the incorporation of impurities in the films with the aim of increasing the electrical conductivity of the structure. This was done by implanting different ions in the structure followed by thermal annealing. We have investigated the position of the ion and its content in the composite by combining Transmission Electron Microscopy and X-ray diffraction. Finally, N+/P junctions were fabricated using highly doped films containing silicon nanoparticles and a photovoltaic effect was demonstrated.

This thesis presents an investigation into the factors affecting the morphology of hybrid inorganic/organic photoactive layers used in photovoltaic cells. Although optimisation of the organic (polymer) phase has received substantial attention, research into the morphology of the inorganic phase (semiconducting nanocrystals) remains limited. It is believed that there is a strong link between the morphology of the final photoactive film and the quality of the initial nanocrystal dispersion. To this end, two nanocrystal systems were investigated; zinc oxide (ZnO) and lead sulphide (PbS). ZnO nanocrystals were synthesised and found to possess reproducible characteristics. It was determined that colloid stability was initially dependent upon the presence of acetate groups bound to the surface, which in turn required a small quantity of methanol to be present in the organic dispersant. It was also discovered that while methanol evaporated readily from the surface of the nanocrystals, another molecule, 1-propylamine (1-PA), did not. Further investigations showed that while methanol only weakly physisorbed to the surface of ZnO nanocrystals, 1-PA formed strong, dative covalent bonds with Zn2+, preventing evaporation despite a low boiling point. Subsequent investigations into the effects of different ligands upon colloid stability found that amine-based groups typically possessed superior stabilising capabilities compared to alcohol-based analogues. The characteristics of nanocrystal / polymer blends were also investigated. It was determined that the nanocrystal dispersion became unstable at higher concentrations of polymer due to depletion aggregation. Films of nanocrystal / polymer blends were cast from dispersions containing either alcohol or amine-based ligands, and it was observed that dispersions stabilised with 1-PA possessed smooth morphologies on the micrometer scale. Investigations at the nanometer scale, however, revealed aggregates large enough to favour recombination.The latter half of this thesis regards the characterisation of PbS nanocrystals and investigations into triggered aggregation. It was determined that while PbS nanocrystals possessed reproducible characteristics, the stabilising molecule, oleic acid (OA) was insulating. The effects of exchanging the OA groups for a shorter ligand, butylamine (BA) were investigated.Finally, PbS nanocrystals were treated with a bidentate ligand, 1,2-ethanedithiol (EDT) to induce triggered aggregation. It was observed that the system was highly sensitive to the concentration of EDT in dispersion, forming small, relatively dispersed aggregates at low [EDT], and micrometer-sized crystalline structures at high [EDT]. The characterisation and entrapment of these nanocrystal structures within semi-conducting polymer films is also discussed.