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Picketing, a method used by employees, collectively, to assert their demands against employers, is a controversial subject arising from the conflict of interest existing between labour and employers! Previously, South African law neither forbade nor regulated picketing. Consequently, no immunity from civil liability existed in relation to a person's conduct during a picket. Presently, picketing is regulated by section 17 of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa Act 108of19% (right to picket) and section 69 of the Labour Relations Act 66 of 1995, which provides for a protected picket (one that complies with the requirements of section 69) whereby immunity from civil liability attaches to a person's conduct during a picket. These provisions and their coexistence is examined, comparing foreign law where relevant, in an attempt to provide a foundation for a topic relatively disregarded. Section 69 reveals elements of uncertainty and vagueness. / Law / LL.M.

Picketing, a method used by employees, collectively, to assert their demands against employers, is a controversial subject arising from the conflict of interest existing between labour and employers! Previously, South African law neither forbade nor regulated picketing. Consequently, no immunity from civil liability existed in relation to a person's conduct during a picket. Presently, picketing is regulated by section 17 of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa Act 108of19% (right to picket) and section 69 of the Labour Relations Act 66 of 1995, which provides for a protected picket (one that complies with the requirements of section 69) whereby immunity from civil liability attaches to a person's conduct during a picket. These provisions and their coexistence is examined, comparing foreign law where relevant, in an attempt to provide a foundation for a topic relatively disregarded. Section 69 reveals elements of uncertainty and vagueness. / Law / LL.M.

Ce travail décrit de nouveaux composés thérapeutiques anticancéreux traçables par imagerie optique appelés théranostiques optiques.Après un premier chapitre bibliographique décrivant le contexte de l’imagerie et la thérapie des cancers, un deuxième chapitre présente une première série de théranostiques BODIPY-phosphine-or dont la synthèse a été optimisée (diminution du nombre d’étapes, baisse du temps de réaction, compatibilité avec une augmentation d’échelle). Leur conjugaison à des biomolécules (glucose, peptide) a été réalisée par une méthode simple et efficace par couplage entre l’atome d’or de la sonde et la fonction thiol de la biomolécule (modifiée ou non), conduisant à une liaison or-soufre. Elle permet une biovectorisation pour rendre les composés plus sélectifs des cellules tumorales vis à vis des cellules saines. Les études photophysiques et biologiques réalisées ont démontré tout le potentiel de ces théranostiques dans le cadre d’un suivi de composé in vitro et l’impact que pouvait avoir le vecteur choisi.Le troisième chapitre présente deux autres séries de théranostiques et précurseurs visant deux objectifs distincts pour rendre la sonde plus compatible avec une imagerie optique in vivo. La modification structurale de la plateforme BODIPY par introduction de groupements augmentant la conjugaison permet d’obtenir des BODIPYs absorbant et émettant dans la « fenêtre thérapeutique » (650 900 nm, proche infrarouge). Des études préliminaires in vivo ainsi que des tests en imagerie photoacoustique ont donné des résultats prometteurs. Une deuxième modification structurale par introduction de groupements encombrants sur chaque face du BODIPY vise à empêcher l’agrégation des BODIPYs en milieu biologique (phénomène connu pour affecter leurs propriétés optiques). Cette approche « Picket-Fence » des porphyrines transposée en série BODIPY a permis d’appliquer pour la première fois en série BODIPY le concept d’atropoisomérie et d’atropoisomères interconvertibles. / This work describes new anticancer agents that could be detected by optical imaging, namely optical theranostics.After a first chapter describing the context of cancer imaging and therapy, a second chapter describes a first series of BODIPY-phosphine-gold theranostics, the synthesis of which has been optimized (less steps, shortening the reaction time, scale up). Their conjugation with biomolecules (glucose, peptide) has been achieved by developing a simple and efficient method that leads to the coupling between the gold atom of the probe and the thiol of the biomolecule (modified or not), leading to a gold sulfur bound. Hence, it makes the biovectorization of the probes possible in order to get selectivity against tumor cells compared with healthy cells. Subsequent photophysical and biological studies demonstrated the potential of such theranostics, such as in vitro monitoring, and the impact of a chosen biomolecule (vector).A third chapter presents two additional series of theranostics and precursors with two distinct objectives aimed at making the probe more suitable for in vivo optical imaging. A first structural modification of the BODIPY platform was achieved upon introducing chemical groups allowing an extention of the π conjugation. It leads to BODIPYs that absorb and emit in the « therapeutic window » (650 900 nm, NIR). Preliminary in vivo studies and preliminary photoacoustic imaging studies with such compounds led to promising results. A second structural modification upon introducing bulky groups on each face of the probe was aimed at preventing stacking of BODIPYs platforms in biological media (a phenomenon known to affect their optical properties). Hence, a porphyrin « Picket Fence » approach was successfully transposed to BODIPY together with the concept of atropisomery and atropisomer interconversion.

所謂「罷工」，是指「多數勞工有計畫性的不履行其勞務」而言。至於「糾察線」，一般而言是指工會在進行罷工時，為了鼓勵其他受僱人支持該工會之行動，而由工會成員或參與「罷工」者，手持標語而在雇主之工作場所入口處所進行的說服行為。然而，一個可以想像、同時也是過去時常發生的問題─雇主可不可以直接請求國家主動介入，甚至進一步排除勞方所發動的各項爭議手段？若自警察權限行使的角度出發，目前學理上所存在的幾個重要的警察任務，除了傳統的「危害防止」之外，新興的「危害預防」以及備受爭議的「私權保護」，似乎都可以是警察介入勞資爭議事件的理由。除了前述思考外，若就勞資爭議事件的外觀觀之，由於爭議行為是屬於勞工集體性權利行使後的結果，因此在此一集體性外觀之下，以規範特定多數人集體意志行動的「集會遊行法」似乎就存有介入的空間。然而，若我們認為勞工的集體性權利在憲法上有其獨特的地位，而應受到特別的保障，但卻又允許充滿諸多不合理規範的「集會遊行法」恣意介入，這是否已經形成了「憲法上允許、但實定法上不允許」的矛盾結果？因此，在特定法領域內進行思考時，應同時考慮罷工背後所代表的獨特社會意義，並試著融入此一理念，不宜以該領域內的原理原理原普遍性的適用於罷工事件，而導致罷工遭到實質上架空的結果。在此一思考下，在具體的勞資爭議事件中，除了考量警察的核心任務要件外，勞動法領域內重要的原理原則，例如「團體協約自治」、「國家中立原則」、「爭議對等原則」等，也是重要的判斷因素。 首先，若我們面對的是「罷工」時，若就「危害防止」任務的角度，雖然勞工在調解不成立、且經過罷工投票程序正式取得罷工權後，將會形成外觀上可具體辨認的「危害」，但「罷工」本質上為單純的民事上債務不履行，不會對警察所欲保護的「公共安全」法益形成侵害，因此警察不得以「危害防止」為由介入；其次，若是「私權保護」任務，「罷工」雖屬純粹的私權爭執，因而落入警察之「私權保護」任務之範疇，但「罷工」所形成的危害不具有不可回復性，且因勞工主管機關在勞資爭議事件中的頻繁介入，實際上也不能滿足「輔助性」的要求，因此縱經雇主請求，警察亦不能以「私權保護」為由介入；其三，依據警察的「危害預防」任務，若罷工中的勞工若具有集會遊行的外觀時，警察可以依據警察職權行使法第9條針對在場的勞工進行資料蒐集，但其權限行使範圍不包括「不具集會遊行外觀的罷工活動」，例如工會幹部於罷工前私下進行的聯繫與討論等；其四，若有存在集會遊行外觀的罷工行動時，以罷工為目的的集會遊行雖不能與「罷工」本身畫上等號，但此類集會遊行的核心精神仍是在於強化罷工本身的效果，因此基於憲法上對於集體性同盟自由的最大保障，應認為此類集會遊行應不受集會遊行法所規範，因此警察不得以集會遊行法為由強行介入；退步言之，縱然是採取「以罷工為目的的集會遊行」應受集會遊行法所規範的見解，仍應認為該集會遊行屬於集會遊行法第8條第1項第1款之「依法令規定舉行」之例外，因此毋庸事前申請。但我們在以警察法的角度思考之餘，仍應進一步考量「爭議對等原則」及「國家中立原則」的立場，因此前述自警察法角度得出的結論應再進一步修正，亦即不應允許警察以「危害預防」任務以及「集會遊行法」為由，過度干預勞工的爭議權行使。 而警察若面對的是「糾察線」時，又應如何處理？首先，就「危害防止」任務而言，仍可以集體勞動法領域的「和平勸服說」作為警察的職權發動判斷依據；其次，在「私權保護」任務的部分，若糾察線的設置導致激烈的衝突，而使行為人因而該當特定刑法構成要件時，因已經經過刑法所保護的特定法益並非「未經刑罰或公法化」之私權，不能滿足「私權保護」任務之前提，因此警察當然不能以此為由加以介入；其三，在「危害預防」任務的部分，警察可以依據警察職權行使法第9條針對糾察線設置現場的勞工進行資料蒐集；其四，在「集會遊行法」的部分，本文採取與罷工相同的看法，亦即一個以罷工為目的的集會遊行，由於其核心精神仍是在於勞動條件的談判，基於憲法上對於集體性同盟自由的最大保障，應認為此類集會遊行應不受集會遊行法所規範，因此警察不得以集會遊行法為由強行介入。而糾察線屬於附隨於罷工的重要爭議行為，其既為同盟自由所保障的集體勞動行為之一，亦應為相同解釋，因此就此一問題應採取否定的看法。至於「爭議對等原則」及「國家中立原則」的部分，若考量個別糾察線的設置若因違反刑法而遭到警察介入時，不必然會影響其他正在進行的爭議行為，換言之，個別糾察線設置的排除不必然會導致勞方的整體抗爭力量被過度削弱，因此仍應允許警察在滿足「危害防止」及「危害預防」任務要件的同時，主動發動其職權，例如以強制力排除侵害以及事先進行資料蒐集等。

To gather together is a natural human activity shared by all people. The majority of these activities take place without the involvement of the government, and is of no interest to the law. In South Africa, the right to assemble peacefully, to demonstrate, to picket or to present petitions, is protected in the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996. When people gather, be it peaceful or violent, participants run the risk of being arrested for committing offences. The way the government of the day reacts to gatherings influence the policing, prosecution and adjudication of offences arising from the right to gather. Current legislation and common-law offences utilised to curb disorder in South Africa are measured against international and regional case law and guidelines. Most of these case law and guidelines linked to international and regional instruments are similar in many respects, and can be deemed as universally acceptable. It is proposed that the government revisits the mixture of current offences utilised by the prosecution during dissent, public violence or protest action, and that specific public order offences are created, providing for specific unlawful conduct with corroborating sentences. Police powers must furthermore be clearly defined to strengthen the hand of the police to secure law and order, serve as guarantee for the rights and freedoms of everyone, and to create legal certainty. The government must organise applicable public order offences in a single public order act. Legislation applicable to public order must be accessible and easily understandable since protest may be the only avenue for a member of the public to bring his or her plight under the attention of the government. Existing guidelines from applicable international and regional instruments which guide and monitor executive conduct must be included since these guidelines qualify as public order offences. / Criminal and Procedural Law / LL. D. (Criminal and Procedural Law)

South Africa has been experiencing a number of violent strikes by trade unions in recent times. The issue is not only to hold unions liable for damage caused during strikes, but also to reduce the number of violent strikes. This study investigates if victims of such violence can hold trade unions liable for the violent acts committed by their members during industrial action. The Labour Relations Act, 66 of 1995 (LRA) makes provision for the dismissal of employees who commit misconduct during an unprotected strike. It also provides the remedy of an interdict and a claim for just and equitable compensation which can be made against the union, during an unprotected strike. It is further possible to hold the union together with its members liable for damages in terms of the Regulation of Gatherings Act, 205 of 1993 (RGA). The study argues that a strike or conduct in furtherance of a strike that becomes violent could lose protection and the trade union should consequently be held liable, in terms of the LRA and/ or the RGA, for damages caused by its members. This study investigates the position in Canada, Botswana and Australia to determine if there could be any other basis upon which to hold trade union liable for the conduct of its members. The study recommends that the common law doctrine of vicarious liability should be developed by the courts to allow trade unions to be held liable for damages caused by members during violent industrial action. Policy considerations and changing economic conditions and the nature of strikes in the Republic favours the expansion of the doctrine of vicarious liability to trade union member relationship. / Mercantile Law / LL. D.