L’utilisation d’un traitement antirétroviral, chez la femme enceinte ou chez l’enfant infecté par le VIH, doit être optimale en termes d’efficacité et de tolérance. De nombreuses modifications physiologiques ont lieu tout au long de la grossesse ainsi que pendant les premières années de vie d’un enfant. Ces changements peuvent intervenir à tous les niveaux du devenir du médicament dans l’organisme. Une mauvaise connaissance des variations pharmacocinétiques associées à ces changements physiologiques peut amener à une toxicité ou à une inefficacité de ces traitements. Il est donc primordial de connaître la pharmacocinétique des différentes molécules antirétrovirales recommandées chez la femme enceinte et l’enfant infectés par le VIH. Les pharmacocinétiques de deux inhibiteurs non nucléosidiques de la transcriptase inverse, la zidovudine et l’abacavir et celle d'un inhibiteur de protéase, le lopinavir, ont été étudiées chez la femme enceinte et/ou chez l'enfant par une approche de population. L’évaluation et l’optimisation des recommandations posologiques de ces trois molécules ont été réalisées en tenant compte de relations concentration-effet et/ou concentration-toxicité précédemment établies. L'étude décrivant la pharmacocinétique de l’abacavir a montré qu’une adaptation posologique n’était pas nécessaire pendant la grossesse. En revanche, les études sur la pharmacocinétique de la zidovudine ont montré que les doses recommandées, chez la femme enceinte et chez l’enfant, devraient être diminuées afin de limiter les risques de toxicité. Pour finir, l’étude sur la pharmacocinétique du lopinavir a suggéré qu’il n’était pas nécessaire d’augmenter les posologies pendant la grossesse, contrairement à ce qui est recommandé dans la littérature. / The use of an antiretroviral therapy in pregnant women or in HIV-infected child should be optimal in terms of efficacy and safety. Important physiological changes occur during pregnancy and the first years of life. These changes can affect drug pharmacokinetics. Poor knowledge of pharmacokinetic variations associated with these physiological changes can lead to toxicity or failure of these treatments. Therefore, it is important to know the antiretroviral pharmacokinetics of recommended drugs in pregnant women and in HIV-infected children. The pharmacokinetics of two nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors, zidovudine and abacavir and one protease inhibitor, lopinavir, have been studied in pregnant women and/or in children with a population approach. The evaluation and optimization of dosage recommendations of these three molecules have been achieved using concentration-efficacy and/or concentration-toxicity relationships previously established. The study describing the abacavir pharmacokinetics showed that a dose adjustment was not necessary during pregnancy. However, studies on zidovudine pharmacokinetics presented that the doses recommended in pregnant women and in children should be reduced in order to limit the toxicity risks. Finally, the study on lopinavir pharmacokinetics suggested not to increase the lopinavir dosage during pregnancy contrary to the recommendations of previous studies.

L’emtricitabine est une molécule centrale dans la stratégie de lutte contre l’infection à VIH. En effet, elle est recommandée en première intention pour le traitement de l’infection chez l’adulte, ainsi que pour la prévention de la transmission de l’infection. Bien que l’emtricitabine soit une molécule clé, elle reste jusqu’à présent peu étudiée. Il est donc primordial d’analyser et de caractériser la pharmacocinétique de l’emtricitabine dans les différentes populations susceptibles d’être exposées à cette molécule. Une approche de population a été utilisée pour réaliser les analyses pharmacocinétiques, nous permettant de décrire la pharmacocinétique avec peu de prélèvements par individu (contraintes éthiques, difficulté de recueil des prélèvements…) et nous permettant d’expliquer la variabilité observée. L’étude rapportant la pharmacocinétique de l’emtricitabine chez l’adulte a mis en évidence une modification du profil cinétique selon l’état de la fonction rénale. Le modèle développé nous a permis d’évaluer les recommandations posologiques actuelles. Afin d’optimiser l’efficacité, la simulation de schémas thérapeutiques alternatifs chez les patients avec une insuffisance rénale modérée a été réalisée. Dans le cadre de la prévention de la transmission mère-enfant, l’étude décrivant la pharmacocinétique de l’emtricitabine chez les femmes enceintes a mis en évidence une modification de la pharmacocinétique au cours de la période gestationnelle. Toutefois, il ne semblait pas nécessaire d’adapter la posologie au cours de la grossesse. La dernière étude a permis d’étudier la pharmacocinétique de l’emtricitabine dans le tractus génital masculin. L’étude de la pénétration dans le compartiment génital est d’un intérêt capital pour le traitement mais aussi pour la prévention de la transmission de l’infection à VIH dans le cadre de la prophylaxie pré-exposition. Notre étude a rapporté une distribution importante de l’emtricitabine dans le tractus génital, avec des concentrations séminales supérieures aux concentrations plasmatiques. / Emtricitabine is a key antiretroviral drug in the strategy to fight against HIV infection. Indeed, emtricitabine is recommended in first-line treatment for HIV infection in adults, as well as for the prevention of HIV transmission. Although emtricitabine is a key molecule, it remains poorly studied until now. It is therefore essential to analyze and characterize the pharmacokinetics of emtricitabine in the different populations that may be exposed to this drug. A population approach was used to perform pharmacokinetic analyses, allowing us to describe the pharmacokinetics with few samples per individual (ethical constraints, difficulty of samples collection...) and allowing us to explain the observed variability. The study reporting emtricitabine pharmacokinetics in adults highlighted a change in emtricitabine kinetic profile depending on the state of renal function. The developed model allowed us to evaluate the current dosing recommendations. To optimize efficiency, simulations of alternative regimens in patients with moderate renal impairment were performed. As part of the prevention of mother to child transmission, the study describing emtricitabine pharmacokinetics in pregnant women showed a change in pharmacokinetics during the gestational period. However, it did not seem necessary to adjust the dosage during pregnancy. The latest work focused on emtricitabine pharmacokinetics in the male genital tract. Studying the penetration in the genital tract is of major interest for treatment but also for prevention of HIV transmission in the context of pre-exposure prophylaxis. Our study reported a significant distribution of emtricitabine in the genital compartment, with concentrations in seminal plasma higher than concentrations in blood plasma.

A oxcarbazepina (OXC) é indicada como terapia adjuvante ou monoterapia no tratamento de crises epilépticas parciais ou crises tônico-clônicas generalizadas em adultos e crianças. A OXC sofre rápida eliminação pré-sistêmica com formação do metabólito ativo 10-hidroxicarbazepina (MHD), o qual possui como enantiômeros o R-(-)- e o S-(+)-MHD. A OXC e o MHD são substratos da glicoproteína-P (P-gp), que pode ser inibida pelo verapamil. O presente estudo avalia a influência do verapamil na farmacocinética e perfusão cerebral da OXC e dos enantiômeros do MHD em voluntários sadios. Os voluntários sadios (n=12) receberam em uma ocasião doses de 300 mg/12h de OXC e em outra ocasião doses de 300 mg/12h de OXC associadas com 80 mg/8h de verapamil. As amostras de sangue foram coletadas no estado de equilíbrio durante 12 horas e a avaliação da perfusão cerebral realizada utilizando a tomografia computadorizada por emissão de fóton único (SPECT) antes do início do tratamento e nos tempos 4, 6 ou 12h após a administração da OXC. As concentrações plasmáticas total e livre da OXC e dos enantiômeros do MHD foram avaliadas por LC-MS/MS. A análise farmacocinética não compartimental foi realizada com o programa WinNonlin e a farmacocinética populacional foi desenvolvida utilizando a modelagem não-linear de efeitos mistos com o programa NONMEM. Os limites de quantificação obtidos foram de 12,5 ng OXC/mL de plasma e 31,25 ng de cada enantiômero MHD/mL de plasma para a análise da concentração total, enquanto foi de 4,0 ng de OXC/mL de plasma e de 20,0 ng de cada enantiômero do MHD/mL de plasma para a determinação da concentração livre. Os coeficientes de variação obtidos nos estudos de precisão e a porcentagem de inexatidão inter e intra-ensaios foram inferiores a 15%, assegurando a reprodutibilidade e repetibilidade dos resultados. A análise farmacocinética não compartimental da OXC em monoterapia resultou nos seguintes parâmetros: concentração plasmática máxima (Cmax) de 1,35 ?g/mL como valor total e 0,32 ?g/mL como concentração livre em 1,0 h, área sob a curva concentração plasmática versus tempo (AUC0-12) de 3,98 ?g.h/mL e meia-vida de eliminação de 2,45 h, volume de distribuição aparente (Vss/F) de 352,17 L e clearance aparente (CLss/F) de 75,58 L/h. A disposição cinética do MHD é enantiosseletiva, com observação de maior proporção para o enantiômero S-(+)-MHD em relação ao R-(-)-MHD (razão AUC0-12 S-(+)/R-(-) de 4,26). A fração livre avaliada no tmax da OXC foi 0,26 para a OXC, 0,42 para o R-(-)-MHD e 0,38 para o S- (+)-MHD, mostrando enantiosseletividade na ligação às proteínas plasmáticas do MHD. O tratamento com o verapamil reduziu o tempo médio de residência (MRT) (4,71 vs 3,83 h) e Cmax como concentração livre (0,32 vs 0,53 ?g/mL) da OXC e aumentou os valores para ambos os enantiômeros do MHD de Cmax como valor total (2,60 vs 3,27 ?g/mL para o R-(-)- e 11,05 vs 11,94 ?g/mL para o S-(+)-MHD), Cmax como concentração livre (3,11 vs 4,14 ?g/mL para o S-(+)-MHD), Cmédia (2,11 vs 2,42 ?g/mL para o R-(-)- e 8,10 vs 9,07 ?g/mL para o S-(+)-MHD) e AUC0-12 (25,36 vs 29,06 ?g.h/mL para o R-(-)- e 97,19 vs 111,37 ?g.h/mL para o S-(+)-MHD). A ii farmacocinética populacional da OXC foi melhor descrita por modelo de dois compartimentos com eliminação de primeira ordem e com um conjunto de três compartimentos de trânsito para descrever o perfil de absorção da OXC. A disposição de ambos os enantiômeros do MHD foi caracterizada por modelo de um compartimento. Os valores de CLss/F estimados na monoterapia foram de 84,9 L/h para a OXC e de 2,0 L/h para ambos enantiômeros do MHD, enquanto os valores de Vss/F foram de 587 L para a OXC, 23,6 L para o R-(-)-MHD e 31,7 L para o S-(+)- MHD. Concluindo, a associação do verapamil aumentou a biodisponibilidade da OXC em 12% (farmacocinética populacional) e aumentou os valores de AUC de ambos os enantiômeros do metabólito MHD (farmacocinética não compartimental), o que está provavelmente relacionado com a inibição da P-gp no trato intestinal. A associação do verapamil aumentou as concentrações cerebrais preditas de ambos os enantiômeros do MHD em maior extensão do que aquelas observadas no plasma. As mudanças no fluxo sanguíneo cerebral (SPECTs realizados 6h após a administração da OXC) associadas à coadministração de verapamil provavelmente foram causadas pelo aumento dos níveis cerebrais de ambos os enantiômeros do MHD. A confirmação dessa observação requer um braço experimental adicional com SPECTs realizados também após a administração do verapamil em monoterapia. / Oxcarbazepine (OXC) is indicated as adjunctive therapy or monotherapy for the treatment of partial or generalized tonic-clonic seizures in adults and children. OXC undergoes rapid pre-systemic reduction with formation of the active metabolite 10- hydroxycarbazepine (MHD), which has the enantiomers R-(-)- and S-(+)-MHD. OXC and MHD are substrates of P-glycoprotein (P-gp), which can be inhibited by verapamil. The present study evaluates the influence of verapamil on the pharmacokinetics and cerebral perfusion of OXC and the MHD enantiomers in healthy volunteers. The healthy volunteers (n=12) received on one occasion doses of 300 mg/12h OXC and on another occasion they received doses of 300 mg/12h OXC associated with 80 mg/8h of verapamil. Blood samples were collected at steady state for 12 hours and the assessment of cerebral perfusion was performed using a single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) before the beginning of treatment and at times 4, 6 or 12 hours after OXC administration. The total and free plasma concentrations of OXC and MHD enantiomers were assessed by LC-MS/MS. The non-compartmental pharmacokinetics analysis was performed using the WinNonlin program, and population pharmacokinetics was developed using nonlinear mixed effects modelling with NONMEM.The limits of quantification obtained were 12.5 ng/mL plasma for OXC and 31.25 ng of each MHD enantiomer/mL plasma for total concentration analysis, while it was 4.0 ng OXC/mL plasma and 20.0 ng of each MHD enantiomer/mL plasma for the free concentration determination. The coefficients of variation obtained in studies of accuracy and the percentage of inaccuracy inter and intra-assay were less than 15%, ensuring the result reproducibility and repeatability. The non-compartmental pharmacokinetic analysis of OXC in monotherapy treatment, resulted in the following parameters: maximum plasma concentration (Cmax) of 1.35 ?g/mL as total concentration and 0.32 mg/mL as free concentration in 1.0 h, area under the plasma concentration vs time curve (AUC0-12) was 3.98 ?g.h/mL, half-life of 2.45 h, apparent volume of distribution (Vss/F) of 352.17 L and the apparent clearance (CLSS/F) of 75.58 L/h. The MHD kinetic disposition is enantioselective, with observation of a greater proportion of the S-(+)-MHD enantiomer compared to R-(-)-MHD (ratio AUC0-12 S-(+)/R-(-) of 4.26). The free fraction measured in the tmax of OXC was 0.26 for OXC, 0.42 for R-(-)-MHD and 0.38 for S-(+)-MHD, showing enantioselectivity in the plasma protein binding of MHD. Verapamil treatment reduced the mean residence time (MRT) (4.71 vs 3.83 h) and Cmax (0.26 vs 0.31 ?g/mL) as free concentration for OXC and increased the both MHD enantiomers values of Cmax (2.60 vs 3.27 ?g/mL for R-(-)- and 11.94 vs 11.05 ?g/mL for S-(+)-MHD) as total concentration, Cmax (3.11 vs 4,14 ?g/mL for S- (+)-MHD) as free concentration, Cavg (2.11 vs 2.42 ?g/mL for R-(-)- and 8.10 vs 9.07 ?g/mL for S-(+)-MHD) and AUC0-12 (25.36 vs 29.06 ?g.h/mL for R-(-)- and 97.19 vs 111.37 ?g.h/mL for S-(+)-MHD). The population pharmacokinetics of oxcarbazepine was best described by a two-compartment model with first-order elimination and a iv set of three transit compartments to describe the absorption profile of the parent compound. The disposition of both MHD enantiomers was characterised by onecompartment model. The CLss/F estimates in monotherapy were 84.9 L/h for OXC and 2.0 L/h for both MHD enantiomers, whereas the values of Vss/F were 587 L for OXC, 23.6 L for R-(-)-MHD and 31.7 L for S-(+)-MHD. In conclusion, verapamil coadministration increased the OXC bioavailability in 12% (population pharmacokinetics) and increased the AUC of both metabolite MHD enantiomers (non-compartmental pharmacokinetics), which is probably related to the inhibition of P-gp in the intestinal tract. Verapamil co-administration increased the predicted brain concentrations of both MHD enantiomers in a greater extent than those observed in plasma. Changes in cerebral blood flow (SPECTs performed 6h after administration of OXC) associated with co-administration of verapamil were probably caused by an increase in brain levels of both MHD enantiomers. Confirmation of this observation requires additional experimental arm with SPECTs also performed after administration of verapamil in monotherapy.

The medical use of marijuana is increasing, yet little is known about the exposure-response relationships resulting in its psychoactive effects. Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and its active metabolite (11-hydroxy-THC; THC-OH) are the principal psychoactive components in marijuana. It is well known that the plasma concentrations of the psychoactive components of marijuana do not directly relate to the observed psychoactive effects. The presence of a counter-clockwise hysteresis in the plasma concentrations-effect plot demonstrates a temporal delay between the plasma concentrations and observed effect following the intravenous administration of THC. The overarching objective of this research was to better understand the relationship between the plasma and brain concentrations of the psychoactive components (THC and THC-OH) and the observable psychoactive effects after intravenous administration of THC, utilizing model-based approaches. Specifically, the pharmacokinetics were explored using population pharmacokinetic (Pop PK) and physiologically-based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modeling whereas the pharmacodynamics (PD) of the psychoactive effect (“highness”) were explored using effect-compartment modeling and linking the PD to the PBPK-derived concentrations predicted in the brain and an assumed effect-site. A “hypothetical” effect compartment model was developed to characterize the observed delay in peak “highness” ratings. A direct relationship was established between the reported psychoactive effects (“highness” or intoxication) and the predicted effect-site concentrations of both components (THC and THC-OH) using this effect-compartment modeling approach. The faster plasma to effect compartment equilibration for THC-OH indicated a more rapid equilibration of the active metabolite between plasma and the effect-site (biophase) than for the parent THC. In addition, a PBPK modeling approach was pursued to predict and relate the brain concentrations of THC and THC-OH to the psychoactive effect. The relationship between the effect and the predicted unbound brain concentration of THC indicated an indirect relationship, suggesting a temporal delay between brain concentrations of THC and observed effect. However, a direct relationship was observed between the observed effect and the unbound brain THC-OH concentrations. In addition, the unbound concentrations of THC-OH in the brain were predicted to be higher than the corresponding THC concentrations. These findings highlight the importance for the inclusion of THC-OH, in addition to THC, when relating the observed effect to the concentrations of the psychoactive components of marijuana. These models contribute to the understanding of the PK-PD relationships associated with marijuana use and are important steps in the prediction of the pharmacodynamic effects related to the psychoactive components in marijuana and establish an approach for investigating other THC-related effects.

Passive exposure of children to drugs is common, but difficult to ascertain as direct studies are in many cases not possible, and currently available indirect measures of drug exposure, such as maternal reports, are likely to be inaccurate. Novel, indirect methods to evaluate drug exposure in the uterus and early life are needed, and may provide risk estimates that can be later correlated with clinical outcomes. In the studies presented here, I have applied novel methods such as measurement of hair drug concentrations and population pharmacokinetics modeling and simulation to evaluate fetal and infant exposure to drugs and potential associated risks. Testing for methamphetamine allowed demonstration, for the first time, that it freely crosses the human placenta. In contrast, analysis of paired maternal–infant hair showed limited cocaine placental transfer, in agreement with animal models. Results of hair tests from children found in marihuana grow houses and other drug operations showed that passive exposure tends to be higher in infants, likely due to higher dependence on, and proximity to care givers. We also demonstrated the importance of measuring drug metabolites to distinguish between systemic exposure to MDMA and simple external hair contamination secondary to drug present in the home environment. Finally, we developed a population pharmacokinetics and simulation approach to accurately estimate drug excretion into breast milk. This novel technique was applied to fluoxetine and to nifurtimox. Use of our approach allowed us to define, for the first time, the limited extent to which fluoxetine and nifurtimox would be expected to cross into breast milk and estimate potential degree of exposure of breastfed infants. In summary, results presented here support the value of these novel methods for the evaluation of fetal and infant drug exposure and suggest a promising value in estimating risks to children passively exposed to drugs.

Passive exposure of children to drugs is common, but difficult to ascertain as direct studies are in many cases not possible, and currently available indirect measures of drug exposure, such as maternal reports, are likely to be inaccurate. Novel, indirect methods to evaluate drug exposure in the uterus and early life are needed, and may provide risk estimates that can be later correlated with clinical outcomes. In the studies presented here, I have applied novel methods such as measurement of hair drug concentrations and population pharmacokinetics modeling and simulation to evaluate fetal and infant exposure to drugs and potential associated risks. Testing for methamphetamine allowed demonstration, for the first time, that it freely crosses the human placenta. In contrast, analysis of paired maternal–infant hair showed limited cocaine placental transfer, in agreement with animal models. Results of hair tests from children found in marihuana grow houses and other drug operations showed that passive exposure tends to be higher in infants, likely due to higher dependence on, and proximity to care givers. We also demonstrated the importance of measuring drug metabolites to distinguish between systemic exposure to MDMA and simple external hair contamination secondary to drug present in the home environment. Finally, we developed a population pharmacokinetics and simulation approach to accurately estimate drug excretion into breast milk. This novel technique was applied to fluoxetine and to nifurtimox. Use of our approach allowed us to define, for the first time, the limited extent to which fluoxetine and nifurtimox would be expected to cross into breast milk and estimate potential degree of exposure of breastfed infants. In summary, results presented here support the value of these novel methods for the evaluation of fetal and infant drug exposure and suggest a promising value in estimating risks to children passively exposed to drugs.

Ce travail de thèse porte sur l’application de la pharmacocinétique de population dans le but d’optimiser l’utilisation de certains médicaments chez les enfants immunosupprimés et subissant une greffe. Parmi les différents médicaments utilisés chez les enfants immunosupprimés, l’utilisation du busulfan, du tacrolimus et du voriconazole reste problématique, notamment à cause d’une très grande variabilité interindividuelle de leur pharmacocinétique rendant nécessaire l’individualisation des doses par le suivi thérapeutique pharmacologique. De plus, ces médicaments n’ont pas fait l’objet d’études chez les enfants et les doses sont adaptées à partir des adultes. Cette dernière pratique ne prend pas en compte les particularités pharmacologiques qui caractérisent l’enfant tout au long de son développement et rend illusoire l’extrapolation aux enfants des données acquises chez les adultes. Les travaux effectués dans le cadre de cette thèse ont étudié successivement la pharmacocinétique du busulfan, du voriconazole et du tacrolimus par une approche de population en une étape (modèles non-linéaires à effets mixtes). Ces modèles ont permis d’identifier les principales sources de variabilités interindividuelles sur les paramètres pharmacocinétiques. Les covariables identifiées sont la surface corporelle et le poids. Ces résultats confirment l’importance de tenir en compte l’effet de la croissance en pédiatrie. Ces paramètres ont été inclus de façon allométrique dans les modèles. Cette approche permet de séparer l’effet de la mesure anthropométrique d’autres covariables et permet la comparaison des paramètres pharmacocinétiques en pédiatrie avec ceux des adultes. La prise en compte de ces covariables explicatives devrait permettre d’améliorer la prise en charge a priori des patients. Ces modèles développés ont été évalués pour confirmer leur stabilité, leur performance de simulation et leur capacité à répondre aux objectifs initiaux de la modélisation. Dans le cas du busulfan, le modèle validé a été utilisé pour proposer par simulation une posologie qui améliorerait l’atteinte de l’exposition cible, diminuerait l’échec thérapeutique et les risques de toxicité. Le modèle développé pour le voriconazole, a permis de confirmer la grande variabilité interindividuelle dans sa pharmacocinétique chez les enfants immunosupprimés. Le nombre limité de patients n’a pas permis d’identifier des covariables expliquant cette variabilité. Sur la base du modèle de pharmacocinétique de population du tacrolimus, un estimateur Bayesien a été mis au point, qui est le premier dans cette population de transplantés hépatiques pédiatriques. Cet estimateur permet de prédire les paramètres pharmacocinétiques et l’exposition individuelle au tacrolimus sur la base d’un nombre limité de prélèvements. En conclusion, les travaux de cette thèse ont permis d’appliquer la pharmacocinétique de population en pédiatrie pour explorer les caractéristiques propres à cette population, de décrire la variabilité pharmacocinétique des médicaments utilisés chez les enfants immunosupprimés, en vue de l’individualisation du traitement. Les outils pharmacocinétiques développés s’inscrivent dans une démarche visant à diminuer le taux d'échec thérapeutique et l’incidence des effets indésirables ou toxiques chez les enfants immunosupprimés suite à une transplantation. / This thesis deals with the application of population pharmacokinetics in order to optimize the use of certain medications in immunocompromised children undergoing transplantation. Among the various drugs used in immunocompromised children, the use of busulfan, tacrolimus and voriconazole remains problematic, particularly because of high interindividual variability in their pharmacokinetics necessitating individualized doses based on therapeutic drug monitoring. In addition, these drugs have not been studied in children and the doses are adapted from adults. This practice does not take into account the pharmacological characteristics of pediatrics throughout their development and makes illusory the extrapolation of data acquired in adults to children. The work done in this thesis studied sequentially the pharmacokinetics of busulfan, voriconazole and tacrolimus by a population approach (non-linear mixed effects models). The developed models have identified the main sources of interindividual variability in the pharmacokinetic parameters of these drugs. The identified covariates are body surface area and weight. These results confirm the importance of taking into account the effect of growth in children. These parameters were allometrically included in the models. This approach allows separating the effect of size from other covariates and enables the comparison of pediatric pharmacokinetic parameters with those of adults. The inclusion of these explanatory covariates should improve the management a priori of patients. The developed models were evaluated to confirm their stability, performance, and their ability to answer the original objectives of modeling. In the case of busulfan, the validated model was used to simulate dosing regimens that improve reaching the target exposure, reduce treatment failure and toxicity episodes. The developed population pharmacokinetic model for voriconazole confirmed the large variability in its pharmacokinetics in immunocompromised children. The limited data did not allow identification of covariates explaining this variability. Based on the population pharmacokinetic model of tacrolimus, a Bayesian estimator was developed, which is the first in this population of pediatric liver transplant recipients. This estimator can predict pharmacokinetic parameters and individual exposure to tacrolimus based on a limited number of samples. In conclusion, this thesis allowed applying the population pharmacokinetics approach in pediatrics to explore the characteristics of this population and describe the pharmacokinetic variability of drugs used in immunocompromised children, for the individualization of treatment. Pharmacokinetic tools developed are part of efforts to decrease the rate of treatment failure and the incidence of adverse and toxic events in immunocompromised and transplanted pediatrics.

A oxcarbazepina (OXC) é indicada como terapia adjuvante ou monoterapia no tratamento de crises epilépticas parciais ou crises tônico-clônicas generalizadas em adultos e crianças. A OXC sofre rápida eliminação pré-sistêmica com formação do metabólito ativo 10-hidroxicarbazepina (MHD), o qual possui como enantiômeros o R-(-)- e o S-(+)-MHD. A OXC e o MHD são substratos da glicoproteína-P (P-gp), que pode ser inibida pelo verapamil. O presente estudo avalia a influência do verapamil na farmacocinética e perfusão cerebral da OXC e dos enantiômeros do MHD em voluntários sadios. Os voluntários sadios (n=12) receberam em uma ocasião doses de 300 mg/12h de OXC e em outra ocasião doses de 300 mg/12h de OXC associadas com 80 mg/8h de verapamil. As amostras de sangue foram coletadas no estado de equilíbrio durante 12 horas e a avaliação da perfusão cerebral realizada utilizando a tomografia computadorizada por emissão de fóton único (SPECT) antes do início do tratamento e nos tempos 4, 6 ou 12h após a administração da OXC. As concentrações plasmáticas total e livre da OXC e dos enantiômeros do MHD foram avaliadas por LC-MS/MS. A análise farmacocinética não compartimental foi realizada com o programa WinNonlin e a farmacocinética populacional foi desenvolvida utilizando a modelagem não-linear de efeitos mistos com o programa NONMEM. Os limites de quantificação obtidos foram de 12,5 ng OXC/mL de plasma e 31,25 ng de cada enantiômero MHD/mL de plasma para a análise da concentração total, enquanto foi de 4,0 ng de OXC/mL de plasma e de 20,0 ng de cada enantiômero do MHD/mL de plasma para a determinação da concentração livre. Os coeficientes de variação obtidos nos estudos de precisão e a porcentagem de inexatidão inter e intra-ensaios foram inferiores a 15%, assegurando a reprodutibilidade e repetibilidade dos resultados. A análise farmacocinética não compartimental da OXC em monoterapia resultou nos seguintes parâmetros: concentração plasmática máxima (Cmax) de 1,35 ?g/mL como valor total e 0,32 ?g/mL como concentração livre em 1,0 h, área sob a curva concentração plasmática versus tempo (AUC0-12) de 3,98 ?g.h/mL e meia-vida de eliminação de 2,45 h, volume de distribuição aparente (Vss/F) de 352,17 L e clearance aparente (CLss/F) de 75,58 L/h. A disposição cinética do MHD é enantiosseletiva, com observação de maior proporção para o enantiômero S-(+)-MHD em relação ao R-(-)-MHD (razão AUC0-12 S-(+)/R-(-) de 4,26). A fração livre avaliada no tmax da OXC foi 0,26 para a OXC, 0,42 para o R-(-)-MHD e 0,38 para o S- (+)-MHD, mostrando enantiosseletividade na ligação às proteínas plasmáticas do MHD. O tratamento com o verapamil reduziu o tempo médio de residência (MRT) (4,71 vs 3,83 h) e Cmax como concentração livre (0,32 vs 0,53 ?g/mL) da OXC e aumentou os valores para ambos os enantiômeros do MHD de Cmax como valor total (2,60 vs 3,27 ?g/mL para o R-(-)- e 11,05 vs 11,94 ?g/mL para o S-(+)-MHD), Cmax como concentração livre (3,11 vs 4,14 ?g/mL para o S-(+)-MHD), Cmédia (2,11 vs 2,42 ?g/mL para o R-(-)- e 8,10 vs 9,07 ?g/mL para o S-(+)-MHD) e AUC0-12 (25,36 vs 29,06 ?g.h/mL para o R-(-)- e 97,19 vs 111,37 ?g.h/mL para o S-(+)-MHD). A ii farmacocinética populacional da OXC foi melhor descrita por modelo de dois compartimentos com eliminação de primeira ordem e com um conjunto de três compartimentos de trânsito para descrever o perfil de absorção da OXC. A disposição de ambos os enantiômeros do MHD foi caracterizada por modelo de um compartimento. Os valores de CLss/F estimados na monoterapia foram de 84,9 L/h para a OXC e de 2,0 L/h para ambos enantiômeros do MHD, enquanto os valores de Vss/F foram de 587 L para a OXC, 23,6 L para o R-(-)-MHD e 31,7 L para o S-(+)- MHD. Concluindo, a associação do verapamil aumentou a biodisponibilidade da OXC em 12% (farmacocinética populacional) e aumentou os valores de AUC de ambos os enantiômeros do metabólito MHD (farmacocinética não compartimental), o que está provavelmente relacionado com a inibição da P-gp no trato intestinal. A associação do verapamil aumentou as concentrações cerebrais preditas de ambos os enantiômeros do MHD em maior extensão do que aquelas observadas no plasma. As mudanças no fluxo sanguíneo cerebral (SPECTs realizados 6h após a administração da OXC) associadas à coadministração de verapamil provavelmente foram causadas pelo aumento dos níveis cerebrais de ambos os enantiômeros do MHD. A confirmação dessa observação requer um braço experimental adicional com SPECTs realizados também após a administração do verapamil em monoterapia. / Oxcarbazepine (OXC) is indicated as adjunctive therapy or monotherapy for the treatment of partial or generalized tonic-clonic seizures in adults and children. OXC undergoes rapid pre-systemic reduction with formation of the active metabolite 10- hydroxycarbazepine (MHD), which has the enantiomers R-(-)- and S-(+)-MHD. OXC and MHD are substrates of P-glycoprotein (P-gp), which can be inhibited by verapamil. The present study evaluates the influence of verapamil on the pharmacokinetics and cerebral perfusion of OXC and the MHD enantiomers in healthy volunteers. The healthy volunteers (n=12) received on one occasion doses of 300 mg/12h OXC and on another occasion they received doses of 300 mg/12h OXC associated with 80 mg/8h of verapamil. Blood samples were collected at steady state for 12 hours and the assessment of cerebral perfusion was performed using a single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) before the beginning of treatment and at times 4, 6 or 12 hours after OXC administration. The total and free plasma concentrations of OXC and MHD enantiomers were assessed by LC-MS/MS. The non-compartmental pharmacokinetics analysis was performed using the WinNonlin program, and population pharmacokinetics was developed using nonlinear mixed effects modelling with NONMEM.The limits of quantification obtained were 12.5 ng/mL plasma for OXC and 31.25 ng of each MHD enantiomer/mL plasma for total concentration analysis, while it was 4.0 ng OXC/mL plasma and 20.0 ng of each MHD enantiomer/mL plasma for the free concentration determination. The coefficients of variation obtained in studies of accuracy and the percentage of inaccuracy inter and intra-assay were less than 15%, ensuring the result reproducibility and repeatability. The non-compartmental pharmacokinetic analysis of OXC in monotherapy treatment, resulted in the following parameters: maximum plasma concentration (Cmax) of 1.35 ?g/mL as total concentration and 0.32 mg/mL as free concentration in 1.0 h, area under the plasma concentration vs time curve (AUC0-12) was 3.98 ?g.h/mL, half-life of 2.45 h, apparent volume of distribution (Vss/F) of 352.17 L and the apparent clearance (CLSS/F) of 75.58 L/h. The MHD kinetic disposition is enantioselective, with observation of a greater proportion of the S-(+)-MHD enantiomer compared to R-(-)-MHD (ratio AUC0-12 S-(+)/R-(-) of 4.26). The free fraction measured in the tmax of OXC was 0.26 for OXC, 0.42 for R-(-)-MHD and 0.38 for S-(+)-MHD, showing enantioselectivity in the plasma protein binding of MHD. Verapamil treatment reduced the mean residence time (MRT) (4.71 vs 3.83 h) and Cmax (0.26 vs 0.31 ?g/mL) as free concentration for OXC and increased the both MHD enantiomers values of Cmax (2.60 vs 3.27 ?g/mL for R-(-)- and 11.94 vs 11.05 ?g/mL for S-(+)-MHD) as total concentration, Cmax (3.11 vs 4,14 ?g/mL for S- (+)-MHD) as free concentration, Cavg (2.11 vs 2.42 ?g/mL for R-(-)- and 8.10 vs 9.07 ?g/mL for S-(+)-MHD) and AUC0-12 (25.36 vs 29.06 ?g.h/mL for R-(-)- and 97.19 vs 111.37 ?g.h/mL for S-(+)-MHD). The population pharmacokinetics of oxcarbazepine was best described by a two-compartment model with first-order elimination and a iv set of three transit compartments to describe the absorption profile of the parent compound. The disposition of both MHD enantiomers was characterised by onecompartment model. The CLss/F estimates in monotherapy were 84.9 L/h for OXC and 2.0 L/h for both MHD enantiomers, whereas the values of Vss/F were 587 L for OXC, 23.6 L for R-(-)-MHD and 31.7 L for S-(+)-MHD. In conclusion, verapamil coadministration increased the OXC bioavailability in 12% (population pharmacokinetics) and increased the AUC of both metabolite MHD enantiomers (non-compartmental pharmacokinetics), which is probably related to the inhibition of P-gp in the intestinal tract. Verapamil co-administration increased the predicted brain concentrations of both MHD enantiomers in a greater extent than those observed in plasma. Changes in cerebral blood flow (SPECTs performed 6h after administration of OXC) associated with co-administration of verapamil were probably caused by an increase in brain levels of both MHD enantiomers. Confirmation of this observation requires additional experimental arm with SPECTs also performed after administration of verapamil in monotherapy.

De grandes variations physiologiques s’opèrent tout au long du développement de l’enfant et touchent toutes les étapes du devenir du médicament dans l’organisme. Ces changements physiologiques vont être à l’origine de l’importante variabilité interindividuelle des paramètres pharmacocinétiques chez l’enfant. Il est donc essentiel de connaître la pharmacocinétique des différentes molécules administrées ainsi que la variation des paramètres associés. Dans ce but, la pharmacocinétique de population semble être la méthode de choix. L’approche de population contrairement aux études pharmacocinétiques classiques peut se réaliser à partir de très peu de prélèvements sanguins par patient obtenus à des délais variables, ce qui représente un grand intérêt du point de vue éthique. La pharmacologie des antirétroviraux reste très peu connue chez l’enfant et très peu d’information est disponible sur l’efficacité des doses pédiatriques actuellement recommandées. Nous avons modélisé la pharmacocinétique de population de la lamivudine chez l’enfant et montré que les enfants les pluslégers donc les plus jeunes étaient potentiellement sous-exposés avec la dose recommandée et nous avons proposé une posologie plus adaptée. Nous avons également pu, pour la première fois, proposer des doses chez le nouveau-né car jusqu’alors les doses n’étaient basées que sur des hypothèses de maturation physiologique par rapport à l’adulte. Des doses pédiatriques pour le ténofovir ont pu être déterminées pour la première fois à partir de la modélisation de sa pharmacocinétique. La dernière étape de ma thèse a été consacrée à l’utilisation de l’approche de population dans un cadre pharmacocinétique et pharmacodynamique : un modèle reliant les concentrations de la lamivudine, de la didanosine et de l’efavirenz à l’efficacité virologique de cette trithérapie chez l’enfant nous a permis d’élaborer un score prédictif de l’échec de la thérapie très puissant et prometteur quant à son utilité dans la prise en charge thérapeutique des enfants infectés par le VIH. / Large physiological variations are observed throughout the development of children, these variations are involved in all steps of the fate of the drug. These physiological changes induce a high interindividual variability of pharmacokinetic parameters in children. Thus, it is important to study the pharmacokinetics of various compounds administered in children as well as the variation of associated parameters. For this purpose, population pharmacokinetics seems to be well adapted. The population approach unlike conventional pharmacokinetic studies can be performed with very few blood samples per patient obtained at different times, which presents a great interest in terms of ethics in children. The pharmacology of many antiretroviral drugs remains unknown in children and very few information is available on the effectiveness of currently recommended pediatric doses. A population pharmacokinetic model of lamivudine in children has been performed and we found that the youngest children were potentially underexposed with the recommended dose and an appropriate dosage has been proposed. For the first time, doses for newborns have been proposed as well; indeed the current lamivudine doses are based on physiological maturity assumptions derived from adults. Pediatric doses for tenofovir were proposed also for the first time thanks’ to population modeling. In the last part of this thesis we use the population approach to perform a pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic model linking the concentrations of lamivudine, didanosine and efavirenz to virologic efficacy in children. A composite score has been derived from the model and provided a high predictive performance to treatment failure. This score seems to be very useful in the therapeutic management of HIV-1 infected children.

Les effets des catécholamines en réanimation sont peu prédictibles. La variabilité interindividuelle des observations est d’origine multifactorielle dont des facteurs pharmacocinétiques et pharmacodynamiques, dépendant de caractéristiques constitutionnelles et acquises de chaque individu. Les posologies de l’adrénaline et de la noradrénaline chez l’enfant sont extrapolées des données adultes. Pourtant l’âge est une source de grande variabilité liée au développement. Un modèle pharmaco- statistique de l’adrénaline et de la noradrénaline a été établi chez l’enfant en insuffisance circulatoire aigüe. Il a permis d’identifier des facteurs de variabilité entre les individus ainsi que de proposer des schémas de prescription des deux molécules en fonction de l’effet souhaité et des caractéristiques de l’enfant. La pharmacocinétique de l’adrénaline chez 39 enfants en prévention du syndrome de bas débit cardiaque postopératoire suivait un modèle monocompartimental. La clairance augmentait avec le poids selon le principe de l’allométrie. Les augmentations résultantes de la fréquence cardiaque et de la pression artérielle moyenne suivaient un modèle d’effet direct Emax. Elles étaient influencées par l’âge et la gravité des patients. Les augmentations de glycémie et lactatémie suivaient un modèle d’effet indirect. Pour la noradrénaline, chez 38 enfants atteints d’hypotension artérielle systémique, la pharmacocinétique était mono-compartimentale. La clairance était influencée par le poids (allométrie). L’augmentation induite de la pression artérielle moyenne suivait un modèle direct Emax. Elle était fonction de l’âge et de la gravité des patients. Les posologies de l’adrénaline et de la noradrénaline chez l’enfant devraient tenir compte du poids, de l’âge et de la gravité du patient : plus jeune est l’enfant et plus grave est son état, plus la posologie doit être élevée pour satisfaire les objectifs hémodynamiques. / The effects of catecholamines are difficult to predict. The between-subject variability observed in clinical setting is multifactorial including constitutional and acquired characteristics of each individual. Epinephrine and norepinephrine dosages are usually extrapolated from adult data. Yet, age is a source of high variability due to development- related phenomena. A population model of epinephrine or norepinephrine was developed in haemodynamically critically ill children. This allowed to identify between-subject variability factors as well as to propose individualized dosage regimens of these two catecholamines according to the desired effect and child characteristics. Epinephrine pharmacokinetics in 39 children at high risk of postoperative low cardiac output syndrome followed a one-compartment model. Clearance increased with bodyweight according to the allometric rule. The resulting increases in heart rate and mean arterial pressure followed a direct Emax model. These were related to age and illness severity. A turn-over model described the increases in blood glucose and lactate. Norepinephrine pharmacokinetics in 38 hypotensive critically ill children followed a one compartment model. Clearance increased with bodyweight (allometry). The resulting increase in mean arterial pressure followed a direct Emax model. This was a function of age and illness severity. The dosage of epinephrine and norepinephrine in children should take into account the bodyweight, age and illness severity of the patient: the younger the child and the more serious the condition, the higher the dosage in order to meet the haemodynamic goals.