During the process of spermatogenesis, histones are replaced by protamines, basic proteins enabling transmission of DNA to the oocyte during fertilization. In mouse sperm, there is only 1% of remaining histones whose N-terminal tails contain post-translationally modified residues. In this study, I was interested in contribution of paternal histone H4 acetylated on lysine K12 residues (H4K12ac) that is present in mature sperm head in remaining nucleosomes. Physiologically, H4K12ac has an important role in transcription factor accumulation and in regulation of gene expression. The presence and abundance of H4K12ac modification in various pronuclei stages of 1-cell embryo and parthenotes were assessed by imunnoflourescent detection with utilization of anti-H4K12ac antibody. Altogether, the paternal pronucleus exhibits a strong acetylation signal on H4K12 since its formation, while in the maternal one, there is a slow continual increase of H4K12ac getting on the same level as paternal pronucleus till the pronuclei fusion. Simultaneously DNA methylation status in both pronuclei was detected. In paternal pronucleus there is a continual decrease in the DNA methylation detectable as a decrease of 5mC and an increase of 5hmC signal. Meanwhile, the maternal pronucleus stays widely methylated. DNA...

Régulation post-traductionnelle des canaux potassiques par les CPKs (Protéines Kinases Dépendantes du Calcium) chez Arabidopsis thaliana : un rôle dans la réponse adaptative aux stress environnementaux ? Les canaux potassiques de la famille Shaker sont des voies majeures du transport de K+ à travers la membrane plasmique. Ces canaux sont impliqués dans l'absorption du potassium depuis le sol et dans sa redistribution dans les parties aériennes de la plante. Ils sont également impliqués dans les mouvements stomatiques et sont pour cela finement régulés. Ils peuvent subir des modifications post-traductionnelles telle que la phosphorylation par des protéines kinases. L'objectif principal de ce travail de thèse s'inscrit dans ce contexte et a pour but d'évaluer l'implication des CPKs dans la régulation post-traductionnelle des canaux Shaker. Les mécanismes d'action de deux CPKs (CPK13 et CPK6) sur la sous-unité entrante KAT2 sont plus spécifiquement étudiés. La première partie du travail de thèse avait pour but de mettre en place le matériel nécessaire pour l'étude en réalisant les clonages, la production des protéines recombinantes et leur caractérisation et testant les premiers effets des CPKs sur l'activité des canaux en expression hétérologue. La seconde partie concerne l'étude du rôle de CPK13 dans la régulation stomatique via la sous-unité KAT2. Nous montrons que la sur-expression de CPK13 dans les lignées transgéniques induit, à court terme, un défaut dans l'ouverture stomatique et également, à long terme, un défaut dans la croissance de la plante. L'existence d'une interaction physique à la membrane plasmique entre CPK13 et KAT2 est montrée à l'aide de la technique de FRET-FLIM. et la phosphorylation de la sous-unité KAT2 par la protéine recombinante CPK13 est montrée in vitro à l'aide de puces à peptides. Enfin, il est montré par voltage-clamp en ovocyte de xénope que CPK13 inhibe l'activité de KAT2 de plus de 60%. Dans la dernière partie, nous présentons un ensemble de résultats qui suggèrent un rôle de CPK6 dans la tolérance au stress salin via son action sur KAT2. Il est en effet connu qu'en cas de stress salin, l'activité des canaux responsables de l'influx de potassium est stimulée, ce qui contribue au maintien d'un faible ratio Na+/K+ dans les cellules. Or, nous montrons un effet activateur de la CPK6 sur l'activité de KAT2, à l'aide de la technique de voltage-clamp. Nous montrons que l'expression du gène CPK6 est très augmentée en réponse à un stress salin et que ceci est concomitant avec le déclenchement d'une vague calcique en réponse à ce même stress. L'utilisation de lignées GUS a permis de vérifier que les patrons d'expression des gènes CPK6 et KAT2 sont identiques chez Arabidopsis thaliana. Enfin, nous montrons une interaction physique entre le canal KAT2 et la protéine CPK6 (FRET-FLIM) et la phosphorylation de KAT2 par CPK6 (puces à peptides). / Post-translational regulation of potassium channels by CPKs (Calcium-dependent Protein Kinases) in Arabidopsis thaliana: a role in adaptive response to environmental stresses?Potassium Shaker channels are major pathways for K+ across plant cell plasma membrane. These channels are implicated in K+ absorption from soil and in its redistribution throughout the plant. They are more particularly implicated in stomatal movement and therefore are finely regulated. They can especially undergo post-translational modifications such as phosphorylation by protein kinases. The aim of this work is to determine the implication of CPKs (Ca2+-dependent Protein Kinases) in Shaker channel post-translational regulation. CPK13 and CPK6 molecular mechanisms of action on Shaker sub-unit KAT2 activity are specifically studied here. First part of this work consisted in cloning, producing and characterizing recombinant proteins and broad screening of CPK effects on Shaker channel activity, using heterologous expression. Second part focuses on the role of CPK13 in stomatal regulation through its effect on KAT2 activity. Over-expression of CPK13 in plant is shown to induce a defect of stomatal aperture and plant growth. KAT2 and CPK13 interaction at the plasma membrane is evidenced by using FRET-FLIM technique. KAT2 phosphorylation by CPK13 is checked on peptide arrays. Finally, a 60% decrease of KAT2 activity by CPK13 is shown using voltage-clamp on xenopus oocyte. Third and last part of this work suggests a role of CPK6 in salt stress resistance through KAT2 channel regulation. Inward potassium channels are indeed known to be activated upon salt stress to contribute keeping a low Na+/K+ ratio. Now, voltage-clamp technique demonstrates that KAT2 activity is increased by CPK6 and salt stress is shown to both increase CPK6 expression and elicit a calcium wave. Using GUS lines evidences KAT2 and CPK6 co-expression in Arabidopsis thaliana (in phloem and guard cells). Physical interaction between these two partners is shown by FRET-FLIM, and KAT2 phosphorylation by CPK13 gets strong support from peptide array assays.

Beyond its essential roles in embryonic development, the Wnt-mediated signal transduction cascade is critically implicated in homeostasis of adult tissues. In the gastrointestinal epithelium, the threshold of active Wnt signaling is kept in a physiological range by a spectrum of regulatory networks and loops, thereby balancing the opposing processes of cell fate determination, proliferation and stem cell self-renewal. Furthermore, compelling evidence undoubtedly link an aberrant Wnt activity to the onset of bowel cancer. Understanding the principle causes and effects secondary to excessive Wnt signaling can provide valuable insights into the pathology of the malignant transformation of the colorectum. The proposed thesis attempts to focus on novel modes of the Wnt pathway modulation; both general and context-specific nuances of the Wnt level adjustment are thereby delineated. The results are presented in three distinct research publications and one review article. The first study examines the contribution of the distinct post-translational modifications, which the Wnt proteins undergo, to their proper processing, secretion and signaling activity. First, we investigated the sequential order and mutual interdependence of cysteine and serine-linked fatty acylation and N-linked glycosylation of murine...

Acidentes causados por animais peçonhentos representam um grave problema de saúde pública, principalmente em áreas de difícil acesso da população ao serviço de saúde. No Brasil, o gênero Crotalus é o gênero de serpente cuja peçonha apresenta o maior índice de letalidade. As L-aminoácido oxidases (LAAOs) estão presentes na peçonha crotálica e são flavoenzimas que catalisam a oxidação de L-aminoácidos, produzindo, concomitantemente, peróxido de hidrogênio e amônia. LAAOs têm demonstrado atividade citotóxica, antimicrobiana, antitumoral, antiparasitária e na agregação plaquetária. Os objetivos desse estudo incluíram o isolamento e a caracterização bioquímica da LAAO de C. d. terrificus, assim como a avaliação de seu potencial leishmanicida e da ativação de fibroblastos. Foram desenvolvidos dois protocolos para isolamento da LAAO. O primeiro consistiu em cromatografias de troca catiônica, filtração molecular e de interação hidrofóbica. O segundo protocolo diferiou do primeiro na terceira etapa (cromatografia de afinidade). Cromatografia de fase reversa da LAAO isolada demonstrou um alto grau de pureza e a separação do cofator FAD. A massa molecular da LAAO foi determinada por espectrometria de massas MALDITOF (58.702,196 Da). A caracterização estrutural dessa LAAO também incluiu a dedução da sua sequência primária e a localização do sítio de glicosilação e das ligações dissulfeto através de espectrometria de massas em equipamentos LC-MS/MS com diferentes tipos de fragmentação (HCD, ETD e EThcD). A sequência primária (498 resíduos) foi obtida após digestão da LAAO com diferentes proteases e o sítio de glicosilação foi localizado na Asn361. Análise por SDS-PAGE da LAAO em condições reduzida e reduzida/deglicosilada mostrou que cerca de 5% da massa da proteína é relativa à presença de açúcar. As ligações dissulfeto (Cys10-Cys171 e Cys331-Cys412) foram localizadas após digestão da enzima em pH ácido e análise por LC-MS/MS. A avaliação qualitativa da especificidade de substratos mostrou preferência por L-aminoácidos hidrofóbicos e, a ordem de especificidade (L-Phe>LLeu> L-Met>L-Trp>L-Ile) foi determinada através da cinética enzimática. A estabilidade da LAAO foi avaliada em diferentes temperaturas, tempos e condições de armazenamento. A enzima mostrou grande perda de atividade ao longo do tempo, sendo que a liofilização e o congelamento a -20 °C inibiram sua atividade completamente. A estabilidade térmica, avaliada pela técnica do Termofluor, mostrou que a LAAO é mais estável na presença de pH ácido, diferentes concentrações de substratos e ausência de NaCl. Promastigotas de Leishmania amazonensis foram estimulados com a LAAO (55 mUAE) e cerca de 30% dos parasitas foram mortos. Fibroblastos L929 também foram estimulados com a LAAO e em baixa concentração da enzima (1,83 mUAE) a viabilidade celular foi próxima de zero. Nas concentrações sem morte celular significativa, a ativação dos fibroblastos foi avaliada através da dosagem de óxido nítrico e citocinas, mas, em nenhum dos casos, houve ativação das células e maior produção desses compostos. Portanto, no presente estudo, foi isolada e caracterizada uma LAAO de C. d. terrificus que apresentou ação contra promastigotas de L. amazonensis e alta citotoxicidade para fibroblastos, sem causar a ativação dessas células / Acidents caused by venomous animals represent a serious publich health problem, mainly in remote areas where the acess to the health service is difficult. In Brazil, the genus Crotalus is the most lethal genus among the Brazilian snakes. The L-amino acid oxidases (LAAOs) are present in the venom from this genus and they are flavoenzymes that catalyze the oxidation of L-amino acids, producing hydrogen peroxide and ammonia concomitantly. LAAOs have been demonstrating many activities, including cytotoxic, antimicrobial, antitumor, antiparasitic and action on platelet aggregation. The main objectives of this study included the isolation and biochemical characterization of a LAAO from C. d. terrificus, and the evaluation of its leishmanicide potential and the fibroblasts activation. Two protocols were developed to the LAAO isolation from C. d. terrificus venom. First one consists in ionic exchange, gel filtration and hydrophobic interaction chromatographies. The second protocol has a modification in the third step which is affinity chromatography. Reverse-phase chromatography of the isolated LAAO showed high purity degree and the separation of FAD from the enzyme. The LAAO molecular mass was determined by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry (58,702.196 Da). The structural characterization also included the deduction of primary sequence and the glycosylation site and disulfide bonds determinations through LCMS/ MS with different fragmentation modes (HCD, ETD, EThcD). The primary sequence (498 amino acid residues) was obtained after the LAAO digestion using different proteases. The glycosylation site was located in the Asn361. A SDS-PAGE analysis of reduced LAAO and reduced/deglycosylated LAAO showed that about 5% of the LAAO mass is due to the sugar presence. The disulfide bonds were determined after LAAO digestion at low pH and LC-MS/MS analysis. It showed bonds between Cys10-Cys171 and Cys331-Cys412. The qualitative evaluation of substrate specificity revealed preference for hydrophobic L-amino acids. The specificity order, determined through the kinetics evaluation, is L-Phe>L-Leu>LMet> L-Trp>L-Ile. The LAAO stability was evaluated at different temperatures, timecourse and storage conditions. The enzyme lost its activity over time, and lyophilization and freezing at -20 °C completely inhibited its activity. The thermal stability, evaluated by the Termofluor method, demonstrated that the best LAAO structural stability is achieved at acid pH, different substrate concentrations and at absence of NaCl. Leishmania amazonensis promastigotes were stimulated with LAAO (55 mEAU) and the parasites death was about 30%. The fibroblasts cell line L929 was also stimulated with LAAO, and at low concentration (1.83 mEAU) the cellular viability was close to zero. At lower concentrations, without significative cellular death, the fibroblast activation was evaluated through the nitric oxide e cytokines production, but none of the compounds were released. Therefore, in this study, a LAAO from C. d. terrificus venom was isolated and characterized. Moreover, this enzyme presented leishmanicide against L. amazonensis promastigotes and high cytotoxicity to fibroblasts, without the activation of these cells.

O estudo de venenos de artrópodes é de grande interesse para melhorar os tratamentos contra envenenamentos e oferece uma ótima ferramenta para melhor compreensão dos sistemas nervoso e imunológico, coagulação sanguínea e respostas inflamatórias. As abelhas são um dos animais venenosos mais estudados e a elucidação do seu proteoma é de interesse na elucidação de reações tóxicas e alérgicas a ferroadas. O número de acidentes envolvendo estes insetos é crescente, tendo ultrapassado 20.000 notificações entre 2001 e 2006 em todo o país e, apesar disso, não há um tratamento específico para estas vítimas, nem mesmo uma identificação completa dos antígenos presentes nesse veneno. O perfil protéico descrito até então apresenta cerca de 40 proteínas. O objetivo deste trabalho foi identificar o perfil protéico do veneno de abelhas utilizando a união da abordagem proteômica e da cromatografia de afinidade. Identificar também as proteínas alergênicas deste veneno e algumas modificações pós-traducionais como fosforilação e glicosilação. Além disso, um soro antiveneno específico foi produzido e sua ação neutralizadora testada. O veneno de abelhas foi separado por cromatografia de afinidade utilizando o soro antiveneno imobilizado em coluna de Sepharose 4B. Para identificação das proteínas foram utilizadas técnicas de 2D-SDS-PAGE, MALDI TOF/TOF e nanoESI-LC/MS-MS. Ensaios de Western Blotting foram realizados para identificar as proteínas alergênicas e fosforiladas. A utilização da cromatografia de afinidade permitiu a identificação 2 de proteínas pouco abundantes. Foram identificadas 54 proteínas, dentre as quais 9 nunca haviam sido descritas neste veneno, como MRJP-2, alfaglicosidase, transferinas, proteases, quinases e um inibidor de protease. Após a identificação destas proteínas foi possível propor um provável mecanismo de ação deste veneno. Dentre as proteínas identificadas como alergênicas, a MRJP-8 foi identificada pela primeira vez, juntamente com fatores relacionados ao PDGF e VEGF. Os resultados dos ensaios de neutralização de atividades citotóxicas, hemolíticas e miotóxicas mostraram a eficiência do soro antiveneno produzido. Chegou-se a um volume de 5,7 mL de soro antiveneno necessários para neutralizar a ação tóxica provocada por 100 ferroadas de abelhas. Este valor está na mesma faixa de eficiência dos melhores antivenenos (ofídicos, aracnídicos e escorpionídicos) produzidos no Brasil e no mundo. O lote de soro antiveneno produzido mostrou resultados satisfatórios para ser utilizado nos testes clínicos / The aim of this work was to identify the protein profile of honeybee venom, and detect allergenic proteins and post-translational modifications. Furthermore specific antivenom was produced and potency tests were performed in order to check its power of neutralization of toxic activities of venom. They were identified 54 proteins, 9 that have never been reported before in this venom. After identification of these proteins it was possible to outline a feasible mechanism of action of venom. For the first time MRJP-8, transferrin, PDGF and VEGF factors were identified as allergenic. Results of neutralization of citotoxic, hemolytic and myotoxic activities showed the efficacy of antivenom that had satisfactory results to be tested in clinical assay

Caenorhabditis elegans possui quatro genes de kpcs (kex2/subtilisin-like proprotein convertases): kpc-1, kpc-2/egl-3, kpc-3/aex-5, kpc-4/bli-4. Em C. elegans, dois dos quatro polipeptídeos de vitelogenina encontrados dentro dos ovócitos, YP115 e YP88, se originam a partir de um precursor polipeptídico (VIT-6) clivado pós-traducionalmente após o motivo RGKR. Nematóides transgênicos foram produzidos com construções repórteres transcricionais de GFP. Foi verificada expressão de kpc-1 tanto em neurônios quanto em células musculares e intestinais. Esses dados, aliados aos dados da literatura para os outros genes kpc de C. elegans, sugerem o envolvimento de KPC-1 no processamento de VIT-6, que é secretada por células intestinais. Ensaios de Western-blot compararam o processamento de VIT-6 em nematóides selvagens, mutantes e knock-down por RNAi para os diferentes genes kpc. A análise de nematóides mutantes e knock-down por RNAi combinado para os outros três genes de convertase de C. elegans confirmou a redundância da atividade dessas enzimas no processamento de VIT-6. / Four kpc genes are found in the Caenorhabditis elegans genome: (kex2/subtilisin-like proprotein convertases): kpc-1, kpc-2/egl-3, kpc-3/aex-5, kpc-4/bli-4. Two of the four vitellogenin polypeptides, YP115 and YP88, originate from a precursor, VIT-6. VIT-6 is cleaved post-translationally after the RGKR motif. Transgenic worms carrying GFP transcription reporter constructs were produced. Expression of kpc-1 has been localized to neurons as well as muscular and intestinal cells. These data, together with the ones available from the literature for the other kpc genes, suggest the involvement of KPC-1 in the processing of VIT-6, which is secreted from intestinal cells. Western-blot analysis compared the pattern of VIT-6 processing in wild-type, mutants and RNAi-treated worms for the other kpcs. Analysis of worms treated by combined RNAi confirmed the redundancy of KPCs in VIT-6 processing.

La galactosémie congénitale est une maladie métabolique affectant la voie du galactose. En effet, l'enzyme responsable de la transformation du galactose-1-phosphate en glucose-1-phosphate, la galactose-1-phosphate uridyltransférase, est déficiente et rend donc l'utilisation du galactose par l'organisme quasiment impossible. Ceci entraîne une accumulation de galactose ainsi que ses produits dérivés, le galactose-1-phosphate et le galactitol. Ainsi, notre hypothèse de travail est que les métabolites impliqués dans cette pathologie provoquent des modifications post-traductionnelles des protéines induisant ainsi leur vieillissement prématuré. Nous avons donc étudié l'impact de la « galactation » sur la structure du collagène de type I et montré que ces modifications structurales sont beaucoup plus importantes avec le galactose qu'avec le glucose à la même concentration, aussi bien sur la structure primaire que fibrillaire. Au contact du collagène « galacté », les fonctions des cellules inflammatoires sont modifiées. La technique de spectroscopie infrarouge a été utilisée pour caractériser les métabolites impliqués dans la galactosémie ainsi que les collagènes modifiés. Dans un but de dépistage, une étude en spectroscopie infrarouge de plasmas galactosémiques nous a permis de mettre en évidence le potentiel de cette technique, du fait de sa bonne sensibilité et de son faible coût de revient. En conclusion, les modifications post-traductionnelles des protéines semblent très fortement impliquées dans la physiopathologie de la galactosémie congénitale. / The congenital galactosemia is a metabolic disease involved in the galactose pathway. Indeed, the enzyme responsible of the galactose-1-phosphate transformation in glucose-1-phosphate, the galactose-1-phosphate uridyltransferase, is deficient and then leads to a use of galactose almost impossible. This leads to an accumulation of galactose and its derived products, the galactose-1-phosphate and the galactitol. Thus, our work hypothesis is that metabolites involved in this disease cause post-translational modifications of proteins inducing their premature aging. We then studied the impact of the « galactation » on the type I collagen and showed that the structural modifications are more important with galactose than with glucose at the same concentration, on both the primary and the fibrillar structure. On contact with « galacted » collagen, the inflammatory cells functions are also modified. The infrared spectroscopy technique has been used to characterize the metabolites involved in the galactosemia, just as the modified collagens. With the aim of screening, an infrared spectroscopy study of galactosemic plasmas allowed us to highlight the potential of this technique, with its good sensibility and its low cost price. To conclude, the post-translational modifications of proteins seem strongly involved in the physiopathology of the congenital galactosemia.

La sénescence cellulaire est une réponse à un stress des cellules de mammifère caractérisée par un arrêt durable du cycle cellulaire. Celle-ci peut être déclenchée par un dysfonctionnement des télomères, des stress génotoxiques et l’activation d’oncogènes. La sénescence constitue une puissante ligne de défense contre le développement de cancers et intervient aussi dans le vieillissement. Les cellules en sénescence réorganisent leur génome par l’assemblage en hétérochromatine sous forme de SAHFs (senescence-associated heterochromatin foci). Nous avons mis en évidence que la désacétylation globale de H4-K16Ac par la désacétylase SIRT2 est impliquée dans l’assemblage de l’hétérochromatine en sénescence. De plus, nous avons identifié une accumulation de variants d’histones H2A et H2B spécifiquement dans des cellules en sénescence présentant des dommages persistants à l’ADN. Ces variants d’histone pourraient avoir des fonctions spécifiques dans ces cellules et pourraient représenter un biomarqueur du vieillissement in vivo.Mes travaux apportent des éléments pour la compréhension des rôles de l’information épigénétique dans la sénescence cellulaire. / Cellular senescence is a stress response of mammalian cells characterized by a stable cell proliferation arrest. It can be triggered by telomere dysfunction, genotoxic stress and oncogene activation. Cellular senescence acts as a natural barrier against cancer development and is involved in ageing. Senescent cells reorganize their genome by the assembly of chromatin into senescence-associated heterochromatin foci (SAHF). We showed that SIRT2-mediated global deacetylation of H4-K16Ac is involved in heterochromatin assembly in senescence. Moreover, we identified the accumulation with time of specific H2A and H2B variants in senescence triggered by persistent DNA damage signaling. These histone variants could have specific functions in senescent cells and could be a useful ageing biomarker in vivo.This work provides novel insights into chromatin modification and epigenetic regulation in cellular senescence.

<p>In the growing field of proteomics identification of proteins by tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) is performed by matching experimental mass spectra against calculated spectra of all possible peptides in a protein database. One problem with this approach is the false-positive identifications. MS-based proteomics experiments are further affected by a rather poor efficiency typical in the range of 10-15%, implicating that only a low percentage of acquired mass spectrometric data is significantly identified and assigned a peptide sequence.</p><p>In this thesis improvement in spectrum specificity is accomplished by using a combination of high-accuracy mass spectrometry and techniques that will yield complementary sequence information. Performing collision-activated dissociation (CAD) and electron capture dissociation (ECD) upon the same peptide ion will yield such complementary sequence information. Implementing this into a proteomics approach and showing the advantages of using complementary fragmentation techniques for improving peptide identification is shown. Furthermore, a novel database-independent score is introduced (S-score) based upon the maximum length of the peptide sequence tag derived from complementary use of CAD and ECD. The S-score can be used to separate poor quality spectra from good quality spectra. An-other aspect of the S-score is the development of the ‘reliable sequence tag’ which can be used to recover below threshold identifications and for a reliable backbone for de novo sequencing of peptides.</p><p>A novel proteomics-grade de novo sequencing algorithm has also been developed based upon the RST, which can retrieve peptide identification with the highest reliability (>95%). Furthermore, a novel software tool for unbiased identifications of any post-translational modifications present in a peptide sample is introduced (ModifiComb). Combining all the tools described in this thesis increases the identification specificity (>30 times), recovers false-negative identifications and increases the overall efficiency of proteomics experiements to above 40%. Currently one of the highest achieved in large-scale proteomics.</p>

Fundamental to all biological processes is the interplay between biomolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids. Studies of interactions should therefore be more informative than mere detection of expressed proteins. Preferably, such studies should be performed in material that is as biologically and clinically relevant as possible, i.e. in primary cells and tissues. In addition, to be able to take into account the heterogeneity of such samples, the analyses should be performed in situ to retain information on the sub-cellular localization where the interactions occur, enabling determination of the activity status of individual cells and allowing discrimination between e.g. tumor cells and surrounding stroma. This requires assays with an utmost level of sensitivity and selectivity. Taking these issues into consideration, the in situ proximity-ligation assay (in situ PLA) was developed, providing localized detection of proteins, protein-protein interactions and post-translational modifications in fixed cells and tissues. The high sensitivity and selectivity afforded by the assay's requirement for dual target recognition in combination with powerful signal amplification enables visualization of single protein molecules in intact single cells and tissue sections. To further increase the usefulness and application of in situ PLA, the assay was adapted to high content analysis techniques such as flow cytometry and high content screening. The use of in situ PLA in flow cytometry offers the possibility for high-throughput analysis of cells in solution with the unique characteristics offered by the assay. For high content screening, it was demonstrated that in situ PLA can enable cell-based drug screening of compounds affecting post-translational modifications and protein-protein interactions in primary cells, offering superior abilities over current assays. The methods presented in this thesis provide powerful new tools to study proteins in genetically unmodified cells and tissues, and should offer exciting new possibilities for molecular biology, diagnostics and drug discovery.