Transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) signaling is initiated when the ligand binds to type II and type I serine/threonine kinase receptors at the cell surface. Activated TGF-β type I receptors phosphorylate R-Smads which relocate, together with co-Smads, to the cell nucleus and regulate transcription. Enhancement or repression of Smad-specific gene targets leads to intracellular protein compositions which organize functional complexes and thus govern cellular processes such as proliferation, migration and differentiation. TGF-β/Smad signaling relays are regulated by various post-translational modifications. From receptors to gene promoters, intricate interplays between phosphorylation, acetylation, ubiquitination and numerous other modifications, control Smad signaling initiation and duration. However, many steps in the cascade, including receptor internalization, Smad nuclear shuttling and transcriptional termination, still remain elusive. The open gaps in our understanding of these mechanisms most likely involve additional post-translational regulations. Thus, the aim of the present investigation was to identify novel modulators of TGF-β/Smad signaling. In the first part of this thesis, we show the importance of ADP-ribosylation in Smad-mediated transcription. We identified poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP-1) as a Smad interacting protein. Our work revealed that PARP-1 forms direct interactions with Smad3/4, and PARylates residues in their MH1 domains. This modification restricts Smads from binding to DNA and attenuates Smad-activated transcription. PARylation is reversed by the glycohydrolase PARG. We provide evidence that PARG can de-ADP-ribosylate Smads, which enhances Smad-promoted gene regulation. In the second part, we examine a Smad-dependent gene target of TGF-β signaling, salt inducible kinase 1 (SIK). After induction, SIK cooperates with Smad7 and Smurf2 to downregulate the TGF-β type I receptor. The mechanism relies on both the kinase and UBA domain of SIK as well as the E3-ligase activity of Smurf2. In summary, we have unveiled two enzyme-dependent TGF-β/Smad modulatory mechanisms; SIK promoted receptor turnover and PARP-1/PARG-regulated Smad signaling.

Tip60 is a 60 kDa nuclear protein which exists in three isoforms, belongs to the MYST/HAT family of proteins and was discovered after its interaction with the Human HIV-1 Tat. As a nuclear protein, Tip60 can act as a coactivator or repressor. To understand the HAT action of Tip60, two possible catalytic models exist; the ping-pong and the ternary complex formation models. In correlation with the exploration of HAT catalytic action, mutations of a Cys to Ala and a Glu to Gln on Esa1 (yeast homolog of Tip60 and MYST/HAT prototype), was reported to show wild type-like and decreased acetylating properties, respectively. In this work, Tip60 HAT action was explored. In Tip60, the Cys in the active site is important for acetylation of the H4(1-20) substrate and the Glu showed semi loss in acetylating the H4(1-20) peptide substrate. These data highlight a unique mechanism of Tip60 catalysis.

In the growing field of proteomics identification of proteins by tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) is performed by matching experimental mass spectra against calculated spectra of all possible peptides in a protein database. One problem with this approach is the false-positive identifications. MS-based proteomics experiments are further affected by a rather poor efficiency typical in the range of 10-15%, implicating that only a low percentage of acquired mass spectrometric data is significantly identified and assigned a peptide sequence. In this thesis improvement in spectrum specificity is accomplished by using a combination of high-accuracy mass spectrometry and techniques that will yield complementary sequence information. Performing collision-activated dissociation (CAD) and electron capture dissociation (ECD) upon the same peptide ion will yield such complementary sequence information. Implementing this into a proteomics approach and showing the advantages of using complementary fragmentation techniques for improving peptide identification is shown. Furthermore, a novel database-independent score is introduced (S-score) based upon the maximum length of the peptide sequence tag derived from complementary use of CAD and ECD. The S-score can be used to separate poor quality spectra from good quality spectra. An-other aspect of the S-score is the development of the ‘reliable sequence tag’ which can be used to recover below threshold identifications and for a reliable backbone for de novo sequencing of peptides. A novel proteomics-grade de novo sequencing algorithm has also been developed based upon the RST, which can retrieve peptide identification with the highest reliability (>95%). Furthermore, a novel software tool for unbiased identifications of any post-translational modifications present in a peptide sample is introduced (ModifiComb). Combining all the tools described in this thesis increases the identification specificity (>30 times), recovers false-negative identifications and increases the overall efficiency of proteomics experiements to above 40%. Currently one of the highest achieved in large-scale proteomics.

Bacterial pathogens assemble complex surface structures in an attempt to circumvent host immune detection. A great example is the glycolipid known as lipopolysaccharide or lipooligosaccharide (LPS), the major surface molecule in nearly all gram-negative organisms. LPS is anchored to the bacterial cell surface by a anionic hydrophobic lipid known as lipid A, the major agonist of the mammalian TLR4-MD2 receptor and likely target for cationic antimicrobial peptides (CAMPs) secreted by host cells (i.e. defensins). In this work we investigate LPS modification machinery in related ε-proteobacteria, Helicobacter pylori and Campylobacter jejuni, two important human pathogens, and demonstrate that enzymes involved in LPS modification not only play a role in evasion of host defenses but also an unexpected role in bacterial locomotion. More specifically, we identify the enzyme responsible for 4'-dephosphorylation of H. pylori lipid A, LpxF. Demonstrating that lipid A depohsphorylation at the 1 and 4'-positions by LpxE and LpxF, respectively, are the primary mechanisms used by H. pylori for CAMP resistance, contribute to attenuated TRL4-MD2 activation and are required for colonization of a the gastric mucosa in murine host. Similarly in C. jejuni, we identify an enzyme, EptC, responsible for modification of lipid A at both the 1 and 4'-positions with phosphoethanolamine (pEtN), also required for CAMP resistance in this organism. Suprisingly, EptC was found to serve a dual role in modifying not only lipid A with pEtN but also the flagellar rod protein FlgG at residue Thr75, required for motility and efficient flagella production. This work links membrane biogenesis with flagella assembly, both shown to be required for colonization of a host and adds to a growing list of post-translational modifications found in prokaryotes. Understanding how pathogens evade immune detection, interphase with the surrounding environment and assemble major surface features is key in the development of novel treatments and vaccines. / text

Tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) is the dominant approach for large-scale peptide sequencing in high-throughput proteomic profiling studies. The computational analysis of MS/MS spectra involves the identification of peptides from experimental spectra, especially those with post-translational modifications (PTMs), as well as the inference of protein composition based on the putative identified peptides. In this thesis, we tackled two major challenges associated with an MS/MS analysis: 1) the refinement of PTM predictions from MS/MS spectra and 2) the inference of protein composition based on peptide predictions. We proposed two PTM prediction refinement algorithms, PTMClust and its Bayesian nonparametric extension \emph{i}PTMClust, and a protein identification algorithm, pro-HAP, that is based on a novel two-layer hierarchical clustering approach that leverages prior knowledge about protein function. Individually, we show that our two PTM refinement algorithms outperform the state-of-the-art algorithms and our protein identification algorithm performs at par with the state of the art. Collectively, as a demonstration of our end-to-end MS/MS computational analysis of a human chromatin protein complex study, we show that our analysis pipeline can find high confidence putative novel protein complex members. Moreover, it can provide valuable insights into the formation and regulation of protein complexes by detailing the specificity of different PTMs for the members in each complex.

Tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) is the dominant approach for large-scale peptide sequencing in high-throughput proteomic profiling studies. The computational analysis of MS/MS spectra involves the identification of peptides from experimental spectra, especially those with post-translational modifications (PTMs), as well as the inference of protein composition based on the putative identified peptides. In this thesis, we tackled two major challenges associated with an MS/MS analysis: 1) the refinement of PTM predictions from MS/MS spectra and 2) the inference of protein composition based on peptide predictions. We proposed two PTM prediction refinement algorithms, PTMClust and its Bayesian nonparametric extension \emph{i}PTMClust, and a protein identification algorithm, pro-HAP, that is based on a novel two-layer hierarchical clustering approach that leverages prior knowledge about protein function. Individually, we show that our two PTM refinement algorithms outperform the state-of-the-art algorithms and our protein identification algorithm performs at par with the state of the art. Collectively, as a demonstration of our end-to-end MS/MS computational analysis of a human chromatin protein complex study, we show that our analysis pipeline can find high confidence putative novel protein complex members. Moreover, it can provide valuable insights into the formation and regulation of protein complexes by detailing the specificity of different PTMs for the members in each complex.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Virginia, 2007. / Includes bibliographical references. Also available online through Digital Dissertations.

Diss. (sammanfattning) Stockholm : Karolinska institutet, 2007. / Härtill 4 uppsatser.

Le principal intérêt de nos études présentées dans ce manuscrit, correspond à la compréhension des évènements, reliés aux acylations d’histones au niveau des lysines (Ks) dans les cellules germinales post méiotiques, qui régulent spécifiquement l’expression des gènes à l’échelle du génome entier.Dans la première partie de mon travail, nous avons élaboré une stratégie afin d’analyser le rôle des « histones acetyl transférases » (HATs), Cbp et p300, dans les cellules germinales post méiotiques. Pour ce faire, nous avons généré une lignée de souris conditionnellement et partiellement invalidée pour les gènes Cbp et p300 dans les cellules post méiotiques. Bien que les souris mâles sont fertiles et que la spermatogénèse semble se dérouler normalement, une analyse transcriptomique des cellules germinales haploïdes post méiotiques précoces et tardives nous a permis d’identifier une série de gènes dont l’expression est augmentée dans les cellules spermatogéniques tardives et qui sont sensibles à la diminution des niveaux de Cbp et p300. Ces résultats ont permis de révéler un programme spécifique d’expression de gènes dans les cellules germinales post méiotiques dépendant des HATs correspondantes.Prenant en compte qu’il existe une variété d’acylations des histones au niveau des lysines, nous avons étendu nos études à une modification à « quatre-carbone », la butyrylation. Nous avons alors initié une analyse comparative de l’acétylation et de la butyrylation de l’histone H₄ en positions K5 et K8 dans les cellules germinales mâles en différentiation. Nous avons cartographié à l’échelle du génome les marques H4K5ac, H4K5bu, H4K8ac, et H4K8bu au niveau de deux étapes développementales critiques avec les cellules méiotiques et les cellules post méiotiques haploïdes. Cette cartographie montre que la majorité des gènes exprimés fortement, à la fois dans les cellules méiotiques et les spermatides précoces rondes haploïdes, qu’au niveau des sites d’initiation de la transcription (TSSs) l’acétylation et la butyrylation sont interchangeables. De façon intéressante, beaucoup de ces promoteurs correspondants sont aussi reconnus par un régulateur essentiel de l’expression des gènes lors de la spermatogénèse, le factor à bromodomaine, Brdt. Une étude détaillée, des capacités de liaison du facteur Brdt sur les parties N-terminales de l’histone H4 portant des combinaisons variées d’acétylation et/ou de butyrylation en position K5 et K8, montre que la marque H4K5bu inhibe fortement la liaison du facteur Brdt. Nos résultats suggèrent qu’en addition à la fonction activatrice de Brdt vis-à-vis du programme d’expression de gènes méiotiques et post méiotiques, l’échange (« turnover ») induit par la butyrylation d’H4K5 est également important. Ce travail montre comment une interconnexion entre deux différentes acylations d’une même lysine peut jouer un rôle régulateur essentiel en augmentant la dynamique de liaison de la chromatine par un lecteur de lysine acétylé, Brdt.Enfin, au cours d’un travail collaboratif portant sur des approches structurales, nous avons montré, malgré le fait que p300 soit répertoriée comme une acétylase robuste, que son activité est réduite lorsque la longueur des chaines acyl augmente. Ces résultats suggèrent qu’in vivo, p300 puisse utiliser un co-facteur spécifique pour assurer des acylations d’histones autre qu’une acétylation.Ces investigations mettent en lumière comment la programmation du génome mâle est guidée par diverses acylations d’histone et révèlent pour la première fois l’existence d’un réseau moléculaire qui régule ces acylations et transmet un impact fonctionnel. / The main focus of the investigations reported in this manuscript is the understanding of the regulatory events that are based on histone lysine modifications in post-meiotic male germ cells, where specific and chromosome-wide regulations of gene expression occur. In the first part of my work we designed a strategy to specifically investigate the role of the histone acetyl-transferases (HATs), Cbp and p300, in post-meiotic male germ cells.Accordingly, we generated double Cbp and p300 conditional knock-out mice resulting in a partial depletion of Cbp and p300 in post-meiotic cells. Although the mice were fertile and spermatogenesis seemed to take place normally, a transcriptomic analysis of early and late post-meiotic germ cells led to the identification of a specific subset of genes with an increased expression in late spermatogenic cells that is highly sensitive to the decreased amounts of Cbp and p300. In conclusion, these results have revealed an interesting new gene expression program specific to post-meiotic male germ cells that are specifically regulated by the considered HATs.Taking into account the occurrence of a variety of histone lysine acylations, we extended these investigations to a four-carbon histone lysine modification, butyrylation. Accordingly, we have undertaken a comprehensive comparative analysis of histone H4 acetylation and butyrylation on its K5 and K8 positions in differentiating male germ cells. Genome-wide mapping of H4K5ac, H4K5bu, H4K8ac and H4K8bu at two critical developmental stages, meiotic and post-meiotic haploid cells, shows an interchangeable use of acetylation and butyrylation in the Transcriptional Start Sites (TSSs) of the most highly expressed genes in both meiotic and haploid round spermatids. Interestingly, many of these promoters are also bound by the essential regulator of spermatogenic gene expression, the BET bromodomain-containing factor, Brdt. A detailed analysis of Brdt binding capacity of H4 tails bearing various combinations of K5 and K8 acetylation and butyrylation showed that H4K5 butyrylation severely interferes with Brdt-binding. Our results therefore indicate that not only Brdt is required for the activation of a meiotic and post-meiotic gene expression program, but also its turnover induced by H4K5 butyrylation is equally important. This work hence highlights how an interplay between two different acylations occurring on the same lysines can play an essential regulatory role by increasing the chromatin binding dynamics of a critical lysine acetyl-reader, Brdt.Finally, in a collaborative work with structural biologists we showed that while p300 is a robust acetylase, its activity gets weaker with increasing acyl chain length. These results suggest that in vivo, p300 would use a specific co-factor to ensure non-acetyl histone acylations.Overall, these investigations shed an important light on how the male genome programming is guided by histone acylations and revealed for the first time a molecular network that regulates histone acylations and mediates its functional impact.

Dans ce travail de thèse, nous avons développé et optimisé une stratégie originale pour la caractérisation des extrémités N-terminales des protéines et des sites de clivages protéolytiques. Elle s’appuie sur la dérivation chimique spécifique des amines N-terminales et nous l’avons adapté à différents types d’échantillons biologiques. L’application de cette stratégie dans des études en biologie nous a permis d’apporter plusieurs éléments de réponse à différentes problématiques. Nous avons ainsi caractérisé les peptides de transit des protéines mitochondriales humaines et ainsi validé/corrigé expérimentalement leurs prédictions dans les banques de données. Nous avons aussi appliqué cette stratégie à l’étude du protéome du parasite P. falciparum. La mise au point de la dérivation N-terminale de protéines immobilisées dans un gel SDS PAGE nous a permis d’étudier le mécanisme d’export des protéines de ce parasite vers sa cellule hôte et de déterminer le rôle des acides aminés impliqués dans cet export. Un réactif de dérivation marqué aux isotopes stables permet d’effectuer des études différentielles des processus protéolytiques que subissent les protéines. Cette stratégie quantitative a été appliquée à l’étude du protéome hépatique du rat soumis au jeûne expérimental. D’autres applications de l’analyse protéomique en biologie sont aussi présentées dans ce manuscrit. / In this manuscript, we describe the development and the optimization of an original strategy for the characterization of protein N-termini and protease cleavage sites. The strategy is based on specific chemical derivation of alpha-amines. We applied this method to the characterization of mitochondrial proteins’ transit peptides which allowed us to experimentally validate/correct their prediction in protein databases. In another study, the strategy was applied to the analysis of the proteome of the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. The optimization of ingel N-terminal derivation and its application to the study of parasite exported proteins allowed us to determine the role of implicated amino acid residues in the signaling and export mechanism of these proteins to the host cell. To enable differential studies of proteolysis, we introduced an isotope labeled derivation reagent. This quantitative method was applied in the context of a study of the rat liver proteome after experimental long-term fasting. Other applications of proteomics in biology are also presented in this manuscript.