The objective of this thesis is to quantitatively understand the economic performance of protected area management strategies for forest and biodiversity conservation. Examples such as integrated conservation and development and eco tourism are assessed in terms of their ability to deliver on welfare benefits to local communities, and an assessment of the opportunity costs of forest conservation as a land use strategy. In addition the contribution of forest conservation in protected areas can make to poverty alleviation and economic development is also examined. The geographical focus of this study is the Albertine Rift region of East and Central Africa, stretching north from the southern end of Lake Tanganyika through the spine of Africa to the northern end of Lake Albert. The Albertine Rift is one of Africa’s most important landscapes for the conservation of forests and biodiversity. The overarching objective is addressed using a series of case studies empirically valuing the opportunity costs of conserving forests in a selection of sites in the central part of the Albertine Rift. The success of conservation is most often measured against progress in reducing habitat or species loss and not often in terms of the contribution of the protected area to poverty alleviation and local economic development. Achieving improvements of conservation strategies in the social dimension requires objective evidence on their effects. Economic valuation of protected area resources provides a quantitative means of assessing the promise and performance of conservation policies in achieving welfare benefits to local communities. This thesis provides three case studies each addressing current valuation and social issues in conservation and sets them in a context of managing protected areas in the broad dynamic setting of poverty alleviation and economic growth from a developing economy perspective. In addition two of the empirical studies are as concerned with methodological enquiry and the performance of novel environmental economic valuation techniques, such as the contingent valuation and choice modelling approaches, as the application of results to conservation questions. The empirical studies show that the benefits to local households and communities from their local forests may be greater than at first perceived. Across all protected area categories, biomes and income groups, households derived significant amounts of their overall income from their local protected area with large proportions of the value of goods harvested from forests being consumed in the home. Amongst income groups high income households often appropriated a greater share of the value of forest goods. There was no significant difference found between the household consumption and the sale of protected area products between income groups. The findings indicate that imposing reductions in forest use may increase poverty amongst local people whilst increasing household income will not necessarily reduce forest exploitation. This indicates that community conservation and integrated conservation and development programmes must target the poor forest adjacent households more actively to ensure poverty alleviation, whilst providing improved protection and law enforcement for effective conservation. It is also shown that biodiversity conservation can have an economic return through mountain gorilla eco-tourism. Findings show a disparity between what constitutes eco-tourism and the real values of tourists towards biodiversity conservation and local social benefits from protected areas. Despite showing a high marginal utility for biodiversity conservation, consumers are unwilling to pay for local community benefits from tourism as part of the permit price to view gorillas. Clearly the link between successful conservation and the welfare status of local communities is not sufficiently established in the minds of consumers to influence their spending decisions. The challenges of effectively mobilising communities to protect biodiversity are discussed in the context of the variable impacts of integrated conservation and development programs over the last three decades. Direct payment payments for conservation services schemes are discussed as an innovative tool to add to the gamut of community approaches currently on offer. Payments for conservation schemes are viewed with cautious optimism in terms of their possibility for success. Despite their allure of being more economically and socially efficient at achieving welfare and conservation objectives, given the complex nature of any society, no less research in to social and economic dynamics of protected area use by local communities would be needed to ensure success of such schemes. However, the overwhelming majority of benefits form protected areas are tied up in ecosystem services values. Mechanisms to generate funding and distribute payments for these benefits in terms of offsetting the local opportunity costs are essential to change local behavior and reduce forest degradation and destruction.

As Unidades de Conservação (UCs) urbanas vêm sendo pressionadas e ameaçadas por atividades antrópicas, resultando em novos desafios de gestão e governança. Desse modo, buscou-se analisar os procedimentos utilizados para mitigação das principais pressões e ameaças em UCs urbanas e identificar as principais variáveis que interferem no alcance dos seus objetivos. Para tanto, foram realizadas entrevistas semiestruturadas com as equipes de gestão de UCs urbanas nacionais (Parques Estaduais do Jaraguá e Cantareira, Estações Ecológicas de Ribeirão Preto e Assis) e internacionais (Sítios Natura 2000 Lendspitz-Maiernigg, Sonian Forest e Parque Nacional Zuid-Kennemerland), onde foram avaliadas as principais pressões e ameaças enfrentadas por essas áreas, bem como as ações de conservação que vem sendo adotadas. As entrevistas foram direcionadas por questões adaptadas da Metodologia RAPPAM (Rapid Assessment and Prioritization of Protected Area Management) e para a análise dos dados foi utilizada a técnica Análise de Conteúdo. Além das entrevistas, foram analisadas as orientações e melhores práticas propostas pela IUCN (União Internacional para a Conservação da Natureza), instituição reconhecida internacionalmente por propor recomendações relevantes para áreas protegidas mundiais. Os resultados indicam uma série de pressões e ameaças comuns aos sete casos de estudos (e.g. desenvolvimento urbano do entorno; estradas e rodovias), bem como pressões e ameaças que ocorrem somente nos casos de estudos nacionais (e.g. incêndios florestais e ocupações ilegais;) e internacionais (transmissão de doenças entre animais silvestres). Também observou-se que todas as equipes de gestão buscaram implementar procedimentos para mitigação em seus territórios, tais como ações de: proteção (e.g. fiscalização e monitoramento); manejo (e.g. controle de espécies exóticas invasoras); operacionalização (e.g. articulação com diferentes instituições); integração (e.g. sensibilização ambiental); uso público (e.g. atividades turísticas de baixo impacto ambiental); e conhecimento (e.g. promoção de pesquisas científicas). As principais variáveis que prejudicam o cumprimento dos seus objetivos são: recursos humanos e financeiros insuficientes, baixa transparência e participação social nos processos de tomada de decisão. Observa-se que a IUCN propõem cinco princípios para uma boa governança (i.e. legitimidade e voz; direção; desempenho; responsabilidade e equidade e direitos) e diversas práticas para uma gestão adequada (e.g. promover uma gestão dinâmica, ativa e planejada, seguindo concepções racionais, adaptativas e participativas). Desse modo, conclui-se que os responsáveis pelas UCs urbanas devem promover o empoderamento dos conselhos, para que estes funcionem adequadamente como fóruns de discussão e participação, bem como devem integrar essas áreas com seus territórios, através de legislações e diretrizes específicas. A adoção de práticas de governança e gestão adequadas, exequíveis, dinâmicas e participativas em UCs urbanas, são fundamentais para a manutenção de ecossistemas saudáveis, os quais formam a espinha dorsal de um futuro mais sustentável. Além disso, para o cumprimento das propostas discutidas, entende-se como imprescindível que as autoridades governamentais incorporem em suas legislações a definição de UCs urbanas, reconhecendo a sua importância e garantindo com que estas áreas recebam maiores atenções / Urban protected areas (PAs) have been under pressure and threatened by anthropic activities, resulting in new management and governance challenges.Thus, we aimed to analyze the procedures used to mitigate the main pressures and threats in urban PAs and to identify the main variables that interfere with the achievement of their objectives. Therefore, we did semi-structured interviews with the management staff of national (State Parks Jaraguá and Cantareira and Ecological Stations of Ribeirão Preto and Assis) and international urban PAs (Natura 2000 Sites Lendspitz-Maiernigg, Sonian Forest and National Park Zuid-Kennemerland). We evaluated, together with their staff, the main pressures and threats faced by the PAs, as well as we analyzed the conservation actions they adopted. The interviews were directed by questions adapted from the Rapid Assessment and Prioritization of Protected Area Management (RAPPAM) Methodology, and to analyze the data we used the Content Analysis technique. In addition to the interviews, we analyzed the guidelines for best practices proposed by the IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature), an internationally recognized institution for proposing relevant recommendations to global protected areas. The results indicate a series of pressures and threats common to the seven PAs (e.g. urban development and establishment of roads and highways), as well as pressures and threats found only in the national PAs (e.g. forest fires and illegal occupations) and in the international PAs (e.g. transmission of diseases between wild animals). It was also noted that all case studies adopted six types of conservation actions, such as: protection (e.g. surveillance and monitoring); management (e.g. control of invasive alien species); operationalization (e.g. articulation with different institutions); integration (e.g. environmental awareness); public use (e.g. promotion of tourism and recreational activities of low environmental impact); and knowledge (e.g. promotion of scientific research). The main variables that undermine the fulfillment of urban PAs objectives are insufficient human and financial resources, low transparency and social participation in decision-making processes. We observed that IUCN proposes five principles for good governance (i.e. legitimacy and voice, direction, performance, accountability, equity and rights) and various practices for appropriate management (e.g. promote a dynamic, active and planned management, following rational, adaptive and participative conceptions). Thus, we concluded that those responsible for urban PAs should promote the empowerment of their councils, so that they function properly as discussion forums, as well as must integrate these areas with their territories, through specific legislation. The adoption of appropriate, feasible, dynamic and participatory governance and management practices in urban PAs are fundamental to the maintenance of healthy ecosystems, which form the backbone of a more sustainable future. In addition, to achieve the proposals discussed, it is essential that government authorities incorporate into their legislation the definition of urban PAs, recognizing their importance and ensuring that these areas receive greater attention

As Unidades de Conservação (UCs) urbanas vêm sendo pressionadas e ameaçadas por atividades antrópicas, resultando em novos desafios de gestão e governança. Desse modo, buscou-se analisar os procedimentos utilizados para mitigação das principais pressões e ameaças em UCs urbanas e identificar as principais variáveis que interferem no alcance dos seus objetivos. Para tanto, foram realizadas entrevistas semiestruturadas com as equipes de gestão de UCs urbanas nacionais (Parques Estaduais do Jaraguá e Cantareira, Estações Ecológicas de Ribeirão Preto e Assis) e internacionais (Sítios Natura 2000 Lendspitz-Maiernigg, Sonian Forest e Parque Nacional Zuid-Kennemerland), onde foram avaliadas as principais pressões e ameaças enfrentadas por essas áreas, bem como as ações de conservação que vem sendo adotadas. As entrevistas foram direcionadas por questões adaptadas da Metodologia RAPPAM (Rapid Assessment and Prioritization of Protected Area Management) e para a análise dos dados foi utilizada a técnica Análise de Conteúdo. Além das entrevistas, foram analisadas as orientações e melhores práticas propostas pela IUCN (União Internacional para a Conservação da Natureza), instituição reconhecida internacionalmente por propor recomendações relevantes para áreas protegidas mundiais. Os resultados indicam uma série de pressões e ameaças comuns aos sete casos de estudos (e.g. desenvolvimento urbano do entorno; estradas e rodovias), bem como pressões e ameaças que ocorrem somente nos casos de estudos nacionais (e.g. incêndios florestais e ocupações ilegais;) e internacionais (transmissão de doenças entre animais silvestres). Também observou-se que todas as equipes de gestão buscaram implementar procedimentos para mitigação em seus territórios, tais como ações de: proteção (e.g. fiscalização e monitoramento); manejo (e.g. controle de espécies exóticas invasoras); operacionalização (e.g. articulação com diferentes instituições); integração (e.g. sensibilização ambiental); uso público (e.g. atividades turísticas de baixo impacto ambiental); e conhecimento (e.g. promoção de pesquisas científicas). As principais variáveis que prejudicam o cumprimento dos seus objetivos são: recursos humanos e financeiros insuficientes, baixa transparência e participação social nos processos de tomada de decisão. Observa-se que a IUCN propõem cinco princípios para uma boa governança (i.e. legitimidade e voz; direção; desempenho; responsabilidade e equidade e direitos) e diversas práticas para uma gestão adequada (e.g. promover uma gestão dinâmica, ativa e planejada, seguindo concepções racionais, adaptativas e participativas). Desse modo, conclui-se que os responsáveis pelas UCs urbanas devem promover o empoderamento dos conselhos, para que estes funcionem adequadamente como fóruns de discussão e participação, bem como devem integrar essas áreas com seus territórios, através de legislações e diretrizes específicas. A adoção de práticas de governança e gestão adequadas, exequíveis, dinâmicas e participativas em UCs urbanas, são fundamentais para a manutenção de ecossistemas saudáveis, os quais formam a espinha dorsal de um futuro mais sustentável. Além disso, para o cumprimento das propostas discutidas, entende-se como imprescindível que as autoridades governamentais incorporem em suas legislações a definição de UCs urbanas, reconhecendo a sua importância e garantindo com que estas áreas recebam maiores atenções / Urban protected areas (PAs) have been under pressure and threatened by anthropic activities, resulting in new management and governance challenges.Thus, we aimed to analyze the procedures used to mitigate the main pressures and threats in urban PAs and to identify the main variables that interfere with the achievement of their objectives. Therefore, we did semi-structured interviews with the management staff of national (State Parks Jaraguá and Cantareira and Ecological Stations of Ribeirão Preto and Assis) and international urban PAs (Natura 2000 Sites Lendspitz-Maiernigg, Sonian Forest and National Park Zuid-Kennemerland). We evaluated, together with their staff, the main pressures and threats faced by the PAs, as well as we analyzed the conservation actions they adopted. The interviews were directed by questions adapted from the Rapid Assessment and Prioritization of Protected Area Management (RAPPAM) Methodology, and to analyze the data we used the Content Analysis technique. In addition to the interviews, we analyzed the guidelines for best practices proposed by the IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature), an internationally recognized institution for proposing relevant recommendations to global protected areas. The results indicate a series of pressures and threats common to the seven PAs (e.g. urban development and establishment of roads and highways), as well as pressures and threats found only in the national PAs (e.g. forest fires and illegal occupations) and in the international PAs (e.g. transmission of diseases between wild animals). It was also noted that all case studies adopted six types of conservation actions, such as: protection (e.g. surveillance and monitoring); management (e.g. control of invasive alien species); operationalization (e.g. articulation with different institutions); integration (e.g. environmental awareness); public use (e.g. promotion of tourism and recreational activities of low environmental impact); and knowledge (e.g. promotion of scientific research). The main variables that undermine the fulfillment of urban PAs objectives are insufficient human and financial resources, low transparency and social participation in decision-making processes. We observed that IUCN proposes five principles for good governance (i.e. legitimacy and voice, direction, performance, accountability, equity and rights) and various practices for appropriate management (e.g. promote a dynamic, active and planned management, following rational, adaptive and participative conceptions). Thus, we concluded that those responsible for urban PAs should promote the empowerment of their councils, so that they function properly as discussion forums, as well as must integrate these areas with their territories, through specific legislation. The adoption of appropriate, feasible, dynamic and participatory governance and management practices in urban PAs are fundamental to the maintenance of healthy ecosystems, which form the backbone of a more sustainable future. In addition, to achieve the proposals discussed, it is essential that government authorities incorporate into their legislation the definition of urban PAs, recognizing their importance and ensuring that these areas receive greater attention

Thesis (MPhil)--Stellenbosch University, 2015. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Lack of collaboration amongst resource user groups in protected areas undermines effective community participation in protected area management. Currently, collaborative approaches are recognised as a planning tool and less of a management tool. However practice reveals that utmost, participatory approaches are recognised in management plans, but fail in the actual implementation. With this study an attempt was made to identify a possible means of enhancing community participation in protected area management by evaluating the extent to which the community of stakeholders in Lake Malawi National Park effectively engage in the management of the protected area. To achieve this aim, the research identified the stakeholders; their relationships with the park; and their relationships with each other. It further evaluated the present level of collaboration on whether it was adequate to enhance community participation in the sustainable management of the park. This research followed a descriptive-qualitative approach because the researcher was interested in exploring wider perceptions of people. It took the form of a case study to allow for an in-depth understanding of the phenomenon through understanding the participants‟ point of view in their natural setting. A critical review of related literature and a field research were conducted where data was collected from park documents and seven representatives from three stakeholder groups through the use of semi-structured interviews in English and Chichewa (official and national languages respectively); supported by note taking. The study has four findings. Firstly, that the primary stakeholders were the park authority management, lodge operators and indigenous people (villagers). Secondly, that stakeholders were found to have a special relationship with the park as it provided business opportunities, a source of livelihood, a sense of empowerment, relaxation space and employment. Thirdly, that stakeholders were not satisfied with the level of relationships in the park especially towards park authority management. This is a deviation from the expected in that for a long time relations in the park were seen to be faulted by the indigenous people and especially towards lodge operators, yet in this research, the relationship between these two stakeholder groups were found to be satisfactory. Fourthly, the research found that whilst there were reduced levels of conflict and that stakeholders related as and when need arose, the general level of collaboration was below the community‟s expectation. On a positive note, the findings showed the willingness of the stakeholders to form a representative body which they all felt would be better placed to negotiate decision-making and would improve the level of collaboration and management in the park. Five recommendations followed on how collaboration and stakeholder skills could be improved in the park and some of which include: the speedy facilitation of the registration of an already existing umbrella association; and the formal recognition of tour guides by Government. These issues if critically looked at, will create an environment in which stakeholders are able to collaborate and work as a community in the management of the protected area which is necessary for conservation and sustainability of livelihoods, the park‟s objectives. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: ʼn Gebrek aan samewerking tussen die gebruikersgroepe van hulpbronne in beskermde gebiede ondermyn doeltreffende gemeenskapsdeelname in die bestuur van hierdie areas. Samewerkingsbenaderings word tans gesien as ʼn beplanningsinstrument eerder as ʼn bestuursinstrument. Die praktyk wys egter dat terwyl deelnemende benaderings herken word in bestuursplanne, dit nie geïmplementeer word nie. In hierdie studie is daar gepoog om moontlike maniere te identifiseer om gemeenskapsdeelname te verbeter in die bestuur van beskermde gebiede deur middel van ʼn evaluering van die mate waartoe die gemeenskap van belanghebbendes in die Malawi Meer Nasionale Park doeltreffend betrokke is in die bestuur van dié beskermde gebied. Om dit te bereik, het die navorsing die belanghebbendes geïdentifiseer, sowel as hulle verhouding tot die park en hulle verhouding met mekaar. Verder is die huidige vlak van samewerking geëvalueer om vas te stel of dit voldoende is om gemeenskapsdeelname te verbeter in die volhoubare bestuur van die park. Die navorsing volg ʼn beskrywende-kwalitatiewe benadering omdat die navorser belanggestel het daarin om die breër persepsies van mense te ondersoek. Dit het die vorm aangeneem van ʼn gevallestudie om sodoende ʼn dieper begrip van die fenomeen te kry deur die deelnemers se oogpunt in hulle natuurlike omgewing te verstaan. ʼn Kritiese oorsig van verwante literatuur en veldwerk is uitgevoer waar data ingesamel is uit parkdokumente en van sewe verteenwoordigers van drie belangegroepe deur die gebruik van semi-gestruktureerde onderhoude in Engels en Chichewa (onderskeidelik amptelike en nasionale tale); asook deur die neem van notas. Die studie het vier bevindings opgelewer. Eerstens, die primêre belanghebbendes is die bestuursowerheid van die park, verblyfoperateurs en die inheemse bevolking (dorpsbewoners). Tweedens is daar gevind dat rolspelers ʼn spesiale verhouding het met die park aangesien dit die bron was van sakegeleenthede, inkomste, ʼn gevoel van bemagtiging, ontspanning en werk. Derdens, die rolspelers was nie tevrede met die vlak van verhoudings in die park nie, veral ten opsigte van die bestuursowerheid van die park. Dit is ʼn afwyking van wat verwag word in soverre daar vir ʼn lang ruk gedink is dat verhoudings in die park deur die inheemse bevolking bederf is, veral ten opsigte van verblyfoperateurs. In hierdie studie is daar egter gevind dat verhoudings tussen hierdie twee groepe rolspelers bevredigend is. Vierdens het die navorsing bevind dat hoewel konflik afgeneem het en dat rolspelers met mekaar skakel indien nodig, die algemene vlak van samewerking nie voldoen aan die gemeenskap se verwagtings nie. ʼn Positiewe punt is dat die bevindings wys dat die rolspelers gewillig is om ʼn verteenwoordigende liggaam te stig wat in ʼn beter posisie is om oor besluitneming te onderhandel en wat die vlak van samewerking en bestuur in die park kan verbeter. Vyf aanbevelings het gevolg oor hoe samewerking en die vaardighede van die belanghebbendes in die park verbeter kan word. Waarvan sommige sluit: die spoedige fasilitering van die registrasie van ʼn reeds bestaande oorkoepelende vereniging, en die formele herkenning van toergidse deur die regering. As hierdie kwessies krities beskou word, kan ʼn omgewing geskep word waarbinne belanghebbendes kan saamwerk as ʼn gemeenskap in die bestuur van die beskermde gebied, en dit is nodig vir die bewaring en volhoubaarheid van lewensonderhoud en die park se doelwitte.

Thesis (MDF)--Stellenbosch University, 2011. / The proper management of protected areas is important for biodiversity conservation and continued flow of ecosystem services such as the building up of soil resources and the provision of clean water. Protected areas provide a means of livelihood for communities on the peripheries of these protected areas through conservation based development projects and create an opportunity for people to learn about the environment and wildlife. Protected areas are areas of land and/or sea especially dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biological diversity, and natural and associated cultural resources, and management through legal or other means (International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), 1994). These are special places around the world that are managed for conservation purposes. Darey, (1998), recommends that protected areas should be planned and managed as a system, a shift from the previous mindset in which they were considered as separate entities. The role played by protected areas is vital and is recognized in most countries including 177 countries who are signatories to the Convention of Biological Diversity (CBD). The CBD caters for cooperation amongst its members by providing support for the financing of protected area systems. There exists, therefore a global mandate for and a specific responsibility to ensure that protected areas are adequately financed. Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife is a statutory nature conservation body mandated with the protection of natural resources and management of biodiversity in the province of KwaZulu-Natal (KZN). Biodiversity conservation needs to happen both inside and outside of state-controlled protected areas to create conservation corridors and buffer zones and also to prevent the environmental degradation taking place as a result of human population growth, habitat destruction, and unsustainable development. (Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, 2005). The challenge facing Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife in carrying out this mandate is the lack of adequate financial resources. The subsidy received is not sufficient to cover all the conservation initiatives that the entity would like to undertake and so the exploration of alternative financing initiatives is required. The aim of this paper is to explore and discuss alternative funding strategies that can be used by Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife to supplement the subsidy received from government. These strategies will form a blueprint that protected area managers can use to source sustainable alternative funding that is reliable and environmentally friendly. This study was conducted at Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife’s head office, based at Queen Elizabeth Park in Pietermaritzburg. The research included input from the organization’s Hospitality Managers and Conservation Managers spread throughout the Province. A questionnaire was designed and circulated to draw responses from Executives and relevant Managers. Interviews to ascertain the organizations sources of funding and future sources were carried out. Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife official documents such as annual reports, strategic documents and project plans were reviewed and interpreted. The report showed that 90percent of the organizations funding comes from government or state affiliated organizations. These sources are neither sufficient nor reliable. Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife cannot plan adequately before establishing the annual subsidy it will receive from government – its primary funder (Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife, 2008). The research also showed that there are numerous strategies that the organization can implement to supplement its subsidy. These include the widespread implementation of Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) strategies and revenue maximization through improved customer service. Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife has a great potential to generate sufficient funds through its commercial services such as camping, accommodation, gates and boating services to name but a few. The challenge however is to develop an operational strategy that will be devoid of bureaucracy and promote business best practices and the formation of partnerships with the private sector and the communities in the form of Public Private Partnerships (PPP’s) and co-management agreements respectively.

Submitted by Sandra Pereira (srpereira@ufrrj.br) on 2017-04-20T14:35:55Z No. of bitstreams: 1 2015 - Ingrid Almeida de Barros Pena.pdf: 2577091 bytes, checksum: 99c3f4a5f9b1924c6832e9e318c39ab2 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-04-20T14:35:55Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 2015 - Ingrid Almeida de Barros Pena.pdf: 2577091 bytes, checksum: 99c3f4a5f9b1924c6832e9e318c39ab2 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-04-09 / Funda??o Carlos Chagas Filho de Amparo ? Pesquisa do Estado do RJ - FAPERJ / The Mosaics of Protected Areas (MAP) are a recent instrument that denotes an integrated and participative management of protected areas stated under Law 9985 of July 18, 2000, which created the National Protected Areas System (SNUC). The creation of MAP is related to the existence of a set of nearby protected areas, juxtaposed or superimposed, with the aim of integrating their management, which can occur in the three spheres of government: federal, state and municipal. The Carioca Mosaic (MC), the research subject, is composed by nineteen (19) conservation units (UC) distributed between the three spheres of government. It has the particular characteristic of being inserted in a urban environment, located in Rio de Janeiro, a city that has undergone changes in its configuration generated from different interests that rarely contemplate biodiversity conservation. The aim of the research is to analyze and discuss the Mosaics of Protected Areas from the analytical category "territory", based mainly on their socio-political meaning, using as subject research the Carioca Mosaic, located in the municipality of Rio de Janeiro. Through a qualitative approach, to accomplish the purpose, the following research methods were applied: literature search, secondary data analysis, questionnaires sent by email, individual semi- structured interviews and participation in events. Based on the subsidies generated from bibliographical survey, it was possible to conceptualize territory, the analytical category of this research, primarily as a physically bounded space of dispute, including natural resources (its material substrate), and also institutionally (its immaterial substrate). Considering that the MAP, as a management strategy, rely on the performance of different spheres of power (both within government and civil society organizations), and is also influenced by global and local discussions, it was considered appropriate to generate reflections from a scalar approach. From the concept of territory, the scale debate and reflections generated from other terms and ideas included in the debate about the integrated management of protected areas, critical remarks are made on the MAP. At this point, are highlighted the potentialities and the challenges in relation to MAP (in particular the MC), some stances related to differences between the vision of public management and the vision of civil society, besides the expectations of spatial transformation by social actors with greater power of influence, in the case of Rio de Janeiro, often combined with political interests in confluence with the city model set. / Os Mosaicos de ?reas Protegidas (MAP) s?o instrumentos recentes que preconizam uma gest?o integrada e participativa de ?reas protegidas, previstos na Lei 9.985, de 18 de julho de 2000, que instituiu o Sistema Nacional de Unidades de Conserva??o (SNUC). A cria??o dos MAP est? relacionada ? exist?ncia de um conjunto de ?reas protegidas pr?ximas, justapostas ou sobrepostas, com o objetivo de integrar a gest?o das mesmas, sendo que esta pode ocorrer nas tr?s esferas de governo: federal, estadual e municipal. O Mosaico Carioca (MC), objeto de estudo do presente trabalho, ? formado por 19 (dezenove) unidades de conserva??o (UC), das tr?s esferas governamentais. Possui a particularidade de estar inserido no contexto urbano, situado no munic?pio do Rio de Janeiro, uma cidade que vem sofrendo transforma??es na sua configura??o geradas a partir de interesses diferenciados que raramente contemplam a conserva??o da biodiversidade. Assim, o objetivo da pesquisa ? analisar e problematizar os Mosaicos de ?reas Protegidas a partir da categoria anal?tica ?territ?rio?, com base principalmente na sua acep??o sociopol?tica, utilizando como objeto de estudo o Mosaico Carioca, situado no munic?pio do Rio de Janeiro. Por meio de uma abordagem qualitativa, para atender ao objetivo proposto, foram aplicados os seguintes m?todos de pesquisa: pesquisa bibliogr?fica, an?lise de dados secund?rios, aplica??o de question?rios fechados por e-mail, realiza??o de entrevistas semi-estruturadas em campo, e participa??o em eventos. Com base nos subs?dios gerados no levantamento bibliogr?fico, foi poss?vel conceituar o territ?rio, principal categoria de an?lise da pesquisa, fundamentalmente como um espa?o de disputa delimitado fisicamente, que inclui os recursos naturais (o seu substrato material), e tamb?m institucionalmente (o seu substrato imaterial). Tendo em vista que os MAP, enquanto estrat?gia de gest?o, contam com a atua??o de diferentes esferas de poder (no ?mbito governamental e da sociedade civil organizada), al?m de serem influenciados por discuss?es de car?ter global e local, julgou-se pertinente gerar reflex?es a partir de uma abordagem escalar. Assim, partir do conceito de territ?rio, da abordagem escalar, e de reflex?es que permeiam o debate sobre a gest?o integrada de ?reas protegidas, s?o tecidas observa??es cr?ticas sobre os MAP. Neste ponto, s?o ressaltadas as potencialidades e os desafios em rela??o aos MAP (em especial ao MC), alguns posicionamentos relacionados ?s diverg?ncias entre a vis?o da gest?o p?blica e a vis?o da sociedade civil, e expectativas de transforma??o espacial por parte dos atores com maior poder de influ?ncia, no caso do Rio de Janeiro, muitas vezes aliadas ? interesses pol?ticos em conflu?ncia com o modelo de cidade institu?do.

The once pristine and rich marine environment of the South China Sea is degrading at an alarming rate due to the rapid socioeconomic development of the region. Despite this, and because mainly of complicated sovereignty and maritime boundary disputes, coastal States have not been able to develop effective regional cooperation to safeguard the shared marine environment. This dissertation, “Towards a Network of Marine Protected Areas in the South China Sea: Legal and Political Perspectives”, researches legal and political measures to support the development of a network of marine protected areas in the South China Sea. Such a network, if properly developed, would not only help to protect the marine environment and resources of the region but also contribute to lower the tension among its coastal States. These measures should be developed in accordance with international law, based on the specific geopolitical context of the South China Sea region and take into consideration experiences in developing regional networks of marine protected areas from other marine regions. Consequently, three optional categories of measures for the development of a network of marine protected areas in the South China Sea are suggested at the end. They include national-focused measures; measures to enhance the regional cooperation; and measures to build a regime for marine protected areas and network of marine protected areas in the South China Sea. These measures could be taken alternatively or on a step-by-step basis.

The biological diversity of the world has decreased. Sweden has ratified the UN Convention "Convention on Biological Diversity" which aims to increase biodiversity. Formally protected areas in Sweden are national park, national reserve, habitat area and conservation area. Kalmar County follows the national targets where one of the goals is to increase the proportion of protected areas to 20 % of the land area by the year 2020. Climate change is an added stress factor for different species and is seen as one of the most serious threats to biodiversity. To explore the development of formally protected areas in Kalmar County over a period of 20 Years, from 1994 to 2014, the number of areas, its acreage, variability and connectivity has been investigated for the years 1994, 2000, 2005, 2010 and 2014. Analyses have been made of the findings in relation to goals made by the government, current research and the impact of climate change. Facts have been found in literature on the subject and by GIS analysis. The results show that the number of and the acreage of protected areas has increased. The proportion of protected land in Kalmar County during the period increased from 0.65 % to 2.3 %. According to the goals of the government and research on the subject regarding climate change, this is far too low. The variability of habitat has also increased, but according to research and the goals of the government are the different areas too small. An assessment is that the core areas should be on 250 hectares, wich only 5 % of the areas in the County of Kalmar were. The distance between formally protected areas has decreased and the proportion of areas that had direct contact has increased from none to 21.9 % in 2014. Because of insufficient facts and of the big importance of the protected areas surrounding environment, no conclusions can be drawn for connectivity in this study.

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The challenge of conserving biodiversity is daunting. Despite some local conservation gains, most indicators of the condition of global biodiversity show declines since the 1970’s, while indicators of the threats to biodiversity all show increases. Humanity has in part responded to the global biodiversity extinction crisis by establishing protected areas (PA) and they are widely considered cornerstones of conservation. However, their efficacy in maintaining biodiversity is much debated. Previous studies have been unable to provide a general answer because of their typically restricted geographic and/or taxonomic focus, or qualitative approach. Using a global meta-analysis with 861 pairwise comparisons inside and outside PAs from 86 studies across five major taxon groups, I tested the hypothesis that PAs achieve significant conservation outcomes measured as higher biodiversity values compared with alternative land covers. I found that globally, PAs typically contain higher abundances of individual species, higher assemblage abundances and higher species richness. Variation in effect sizes among taxa nonetheless underscores that PA efficacy can be context specific. To examine factors driving the context specific nature of PA efficacy, an exact distance, timed point count methodology was used to assess PAs ecological effectiveness in terms of bird assemblages of the Kruger National Park (KNP), South Africa, in the Phalaborwa section. Bird assemblages inside the KNP were compared to matched sites in rural and urban land cover, as well as the connecting habitat matrix outside the KNP. Species richness and abundance were significantly lower inside the KNP compared to other land covers. However, the species assemblages are markedly different. The artificial addition of resources in an otherwise resources poor area, mainly in terms of gardening, provide suitable habitat for a range of species, consistent with the more individuals hypothesis. Large-bodied and ground nesting species are virtually absent outside the KNP. Thus species richness and abundance differences between land cover regions mask insidious changes in species traits. Nonetheless, not formally protected land can contribute positively to the regional biodiversity portfolio. Since an understanding of the mechanisms that structure species assemblages can aid in the consequences of anthropogenic drivers disentangling them, I describe and analyse the body size frequency distributions (BSFDs) of avian assemblages at several spatial scales in the Afrotropical biogeographic realm. I found that the African avifaunal continental BSFD is unimodal and right-skewed. African avifaunal BSFDs are quantitatively dissimilar to the African mammal BSFDs, which are bimodal at all spatial scales. Much of the change in median body size with spatial scale can be captured by a range-weighted null model, suggesting that differential turnover between smaller- and larger-bodied species might explain the shift in the central tendency of the BSFD. My results for the first time quantitatively demonstrate that PAs are a vital component of a global biodiversity conservation strategy. However, I also show that PA ecological effectiveness can be context specific, and understanding which species traits are at risk outside of PAs is critical to predicting their efficacy. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Dit is ‘n uitnemende uitdaging om biodiversiteit te bewaar. Ten spyte van sommige sukses op ‘n lokale skaal, dui die meeste indikators aan dat die toestand van globale biodiveristeit afgeneem het vanaf die 1970’s, terwyl bedreigings daartoe toegeneem het. Die mensdom het gedeeltelik reageer op die biodiversiteits uitsterfings krisis deur die uiteensetting en instandhouding van bewaringsgebiede (BG). Hierdie metodiek word wêreldwyd geag as ‘n hoeksteen van bewaring. Die ekologiese doeltreffendheid van BG word egter baie debateer. Vorige studies was geografies beperk of het net op sekere takson groepe gefokus. Vorige studies is ook tipies statisties kwalitatief van aard. As gevolg daarvan het ek ‘n globale meta-analiese gebruik, wat bestaan het uit 861 gepaarde meetings vanaf 86 studies, oor vyf verskillende taksonomiese groepe. Ek het die hipotese getoets dat BG statisties beduidende bewaring laat gekiet in terme van hoër biodiveristeits waardes binnekant hul grense, in kontras met areas buite BG. Ek het gevind dat BG juis hoër waardes van hoër indivuduele spesies hoeveelhede, gemeenskaps hoeveelhede en spesiesrykheid bevat. Tog dui die variasie in effek grootte onder takson groepe aan dat BG effektiwiteit konteks spesifiek is. Aangesien BG effektiwiteit konteks spesifiek is, het ek verder ‘n tydstip, eksakte-afstand punttelling metodiek gevolg om die Kruger Nationale Park (KNP) in Suid Afrika, se ekologiese doeltreffendheid te bepaal. Ek het voëlgemeenskappe binne KNP vergelyk met voëlgemeenskappe buite KNP. Metings is buite die KNP gedoen in tuislande, die stadsgebied van Phalaborwa, asook in die habitat matriks wat die areas verbind. Beide spesiesrykheid en hoeveelheid is hoër buite KNP, maar die voëlgemeenskap struktuur tussen gebiede verskil noemenswaardig. Die uitbreiding van bronne ten opstigte van nesmaak en voeding (meestal deur tuinmaak), bied vir voëls goeie habitat in die stadsgebied, soos verwag kan word uit die meer individue hipotese. Hierdie veranderinge in spesiesrykheid tussen die verskillende areas versteek veranderinge in die spesies einskappe. Voëls met groot liggaamsmassa, veral die wat op die grond nes maak, kom in baie minder getalle voor buite KNP. Tog bied onbewaarde areas ‘n positiewe inpak tot die omgewing se biodiversiteit. ‘n Holistiese begrip van die meganismes wat spesies gemeenskappe struktureer kan help om die menslike invloed daarop uit te lig. Daarvolgens beskryf ek die liggaamsmassa frekwensie verspreiding (LMFV) oor verkillende skale in die Afrotropies biografiese streek. Ek het bevind dat Afrika se voëlgemeenskappe op die kontinentale skaal unimodaal en regs-geskewe is. Afrika se voël LMFV is beduidend verskillend van Afrika soogdier LMFV, wat bimodaal is op verskeie skale. Baie van die verandering in mediaan liggaams massa oor verskillende skale kan verduidelik word met ‘n verspreidings-aangepaste nul-model, wat voorstel dat die verskille in omset van voëls met of klein, of groot liggaamsmassa in die landskap die veranderings in LMFV verduidelik. My studie is die eerste van sy soort wat kwantitatief bepaal dat die gebruik van BG krities is tot ‘n globale bewaringsstrategie. Verder het ek bewys dat BG se ekologiese doeltreffendheid afhang van die kontkes op ‘n lokale skaal, en dat spesies eienskappe geïnkorporeer moet word om BG se doeltreffendheid te bepaal.

Strategic planning in conservation of natural protected areas should include a human component, since human activity can threaten the health of the natural site. It is the competition for the resources that makes management of these areas a contentious issue. Effective education is key in resolving such issues and in ensuring that informed decisions are made concerning the uses of these valuable natural assets. This study tests this assumption in two phases.The first phase addresses the need to present a wider picture on the current state of environmental education practices in Mexico: Who is engaging in environmental education practices? How important is it for their organization? Who are they targeting and which methods and settings are they choosing and what environmental issues are they addressing? To achieve this, we administered a survey to 118 representatives from conservation and environmental education agencies and organizations in Mexico. Results show that conservation non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are taking the lead in the field of environmental education in Mexico. Education appears to be an important tool that is used widely by environmental and conservation organizations. At the same time, there seems to be a serious lack of funding.The second phase concentrates on conservation education, a specific aspect of environmental education that focuses on biodiversity issues. This is a growing field in Mexico, thanks especially to the system of Natural Protected Areas and the supporting network of conservation NGOs. This phase of the study presented a comparative analysis of perceived roles of education in the conservation of nature, between Mexico and the US and between practitioners and funders. In this phase we also compared the prescribed parameters defined by well known frameworks from academia with those perceived by education and conservation practitioners. We used a combination of online surveying and content analysis to evaluate this issue. Results illustrate that there are similarities between Mexico and the U.S., but with key differences in the target audiences, methods and settings. Funders do not consider education one of their high priorities, while practitioners do. This discrepancy may hamper the growth and maturation of conservation education in Mexico.