Made available in DSpace on 2014-12-17T15:37:11Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 NataliaBD_DISSERT.pdf: 520010 bytes, checksum: 78f395f9cd75c470203c0d6fd6248c90 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012-05-28 / Coordena??o de Aperfei?oamento de Pessoal de N?vel Superior / Human cooperation is a hallmark of this species due to its wide extension to genetically unrelated individuals and complex division of labor. It is considered an evolutionary puzzle, because the theory of evolution by natural selection predicts that self-interested individuals tend to be selected. Different theories have been proposed to explain the evolution of cooperation, which the most important are kin selection and reciprocal altruism. Considering the evolutionary continuity between species, humans and other primates have several common traits that help to promote cooperation between individuals of these species. Two features, however, seem to be particularly humans: inequality aversion and preferences in relation to others. Although human cooperation is not necessarily related to morality, cooperative traits are the basis for moral tendencies. The development of human morality is a combination of early prosocial tendencies, cooperative skills displayed at different ages, social learning and cultural transmission of norms. The social stimulus seems to be particularly important in promoting cooperative behavior in children and adults. In order to study the influence of social stimuli, as verbal feedback, on children cooperation, a study was conducted with children in a public goods game. 407 children from public schools in Natal / RN, divided into 21 groups, between six and nine years, participated in eight rounds of this game. After each round, seven groups received praise for larger donations, seven groups have been criticized by smaller donations, and the other seven received no comment. Children cooperated more when criticized, without significant differences between sexes, although young children have cooperated more negative than older children. The results are likely related to the anticipation and avoidance of punishment associated with the feedback (although this did not occur), and greater sensitivity to the authority in younger children. Nevertheless, the cooperation decreased in all groups until the last day of play. The results suggest an early sensitivity to moral punishment, whose role in the maintenance of social relations must have been important in the evolution of cooperation in humans / A coopera??o humana ? um tra?o distintivo da esp?cie, devido ? sua ampla extens?o ? n?o aparentados e elaborada divis?o do trabalho. ? considerada um quebra-cabe?a evolucionista, tendo em vista que a teoria da evolu??o por sele??o natural prev? que indiv?duos auto-interessados tendem a ser selecionados. Diferentes teorias foram propostas para explicar a evolu??o da coopera??o, sendo as mais importantes a sele??o de parentesco e o altru?smo rec?proco. Considerando a continuidade evolutiva entre esp?cies, seres humanos e outros primatas possuem v?rios tra?os em comum que ajudam a promover a coopera??o entre indiv?duos dessas esp?cies. Duas caracter?sticas, no entanto, parecem ser particularmente humanos: a avers?o ? desigualdade e as prefer?ncias em rela??o aos outros. Embora a coopera??o humana n?o necessariamente esteja relacionada ? moralidade, tra?os cooperativos servem de base para tend?ncias morais. O desenvolvimento da moralidade humana resulta da combina??o de tend?ncias pr?-sociais precoces, de habilidades cooperativas exibidas em diferentes idades, de aprendizagem social e transmiss?o cultural de normas. O est?mulo social parece ser particularmente importante na promo??o de comportamentos cooperativos em crian?as e adultos. Tendo como objetivo estudar a influ?ncia do est?mulo social, sob a foma de feedback verbal sobre a coopera??o infantil, foi realizado um estudo com crian?as em um jogo de bens p?blicos. 407 crian?as de escolas p?blicas de Natal/RN, divididas em 21 grupos, entre seis e nove anos, participaram de oito partidas desse jogo. Ao fim de cada partida, sete grupos receberam elogios pelas doa??es maiores, sete grupos foram criticados pelas doa??es menores, e os outros sete n?o receberam nenhum coment?rio. Crian?as cooperaram mais em situa??es de cr?tica, sem diferen?as significativas entre sexo, embora crian?as mais jovens tenham cooperado mais em feedback negativo do que as crian?as mais velhas. Os resultados provavelmente est?o relacionados ? expectativa e ? esquiva de puni??o associada ao feedback (embora esta n?o ocorresse), e ? maior sensibilidade ? autoridade em crian?as mais jovens. Apesar disso, a coopera??o diminuiu em todos os grupos at? o ?ltimo dia de jogo. Os resultados apontam para uma sensibilidade precoce ? puni??o moral, cujo papel na manuten??o das rela??es sociais deve ter sido importante na evolu??o da coopera??o na esp?cie humana

O presente estudo pode ser considerado parte da linha de pesquisa Comércio, Direitos Humanos e Desenvolvimento, temática recorrente que procura entender e analisar os impactos do comércio internacional na realização dos direitos humanos e no desenvolvimento, além de propor alternativas sobre o inter-relacionamento das três áreas. A integração positiva entre elas depende de muito mais do que a adoção de medidas preventivas contra os possíveis prejuízos advindos da liberalização. Um sistema de comércio internacional que seja realmente favorável aos direitos humanos e ao desenvolvimento entendido não apenas como benefício econômico, mas principalmente como desenvolvimento social, político e cultural , deve ir além e atuar de forma positiva e não passiva. Neste sentido, não se pode considerar a liberalização dos serviços educacionais no âmbito da Organização Mundial do Comércio (OMC), se não forem conduzidas de forma a contribuir para a realização do direito ao desenvolvimento em todas as nações e a todos os indivíduos. No entanto, evidenciada existência de um atual mercado educacional, deve-se buscar alternativas para colocar a realização do direito ao desenvolvimento um direito humano que garante a realização de diversos outros direitos humanos no topo dos objetivos do comércio internacional. Assim, é obrigatório que se procure encontrar uma maneira de negociar o setor de serviços educacionais que não prejudique e ainda colabore para uma implementação mais efetiva do direito ao desenvolvimento. Objetivando cooperar com este relevante e necessário propósito, este estudo discute a atual relação entre o comércio internacional de serviços educacionais e o direito ao desenvolvimento, bem como analisa a importância da educação para os direitos humanos e o desenvolvimento. Afinal, a educação deve ser vista como uma mercadoria liberalizável ou deve ser tratada, acima de tudo, como um direito humano e um bem público, que deve ser protegido? / This study can be considered as part of the current research under Trade, Human Rights and Development, that intends to understand and evaluate the impacts of international trade at human rights and development, besides proposing alternatives to relate all three areas. Integrating international trade, realization of human rights, and development depend on much more than just preventing consequential damages of trade liberalization. An international trade system that is really favorable to development considered not only as economical gain, but also as social, political and cultural development and human rights must go further, and act positively rather than just passively. In this scenario, negotiating education services at the World Trade Organization (WTO) in a way that does not contribute to the realization of the right to development in all nations and for all human beings can not be considered welcome or even feasible. However, bearing in mind that there is already an education market, reality claims for alternatives to put the realization of the right to development as a human right that guarantees several other fundamental rights at the top of international trade goals. Therefore, finding a way of liberalizing education services that does not hinder and yet cooperates to a more effective implementation of the right to development is now mandatory. Aiming to cooperate with this relevant and necessary purpose, this study discuss the current relation between international trade in education services and the right to development, as well as the importance of education to human rights and development. After all, should education be seen as international trade commodity or should it be treated, above all, as a human right and a public good in need of protection?

This thesis addresses three themes relating to climate change. The first is which types of fossil fuel to leave in the ground when they can differ in both their extraction cost and emissions rate. The analysis shows that without resource constraints there will always be use of at least one fossil fuel in the steady-state. With exhaustion constraints, any fossil fuel that has a lower extraction cost than the marginal cost of the backstop will be extracted in finite time regardless of the emissions rate. The only environmental consideration is the timing of extraction rather than leaving fossil fuel stock in the ground forever. The second theme is how altruistic concern of individuals for the well-being of others influences the socially optimal consumption levels and optimal emissions tax in a global context. If individuals have altruistic concern but believe that their consumption is negligible, they will not change their behaviour. However, non-cooperative governments maximising domestic welfare will internalise some of the damage inflicted on other countries depending on the level of altruistic concern individuals have and the cooperative optimum also changes as altruism leads individuals to effectively experience damage in other countries as well as the direct damage to them. Still, for behaviour to change, individuals need to make their decisions in a different way. The third chapter develops a new theory of moral behaviour whereby individuals balance the cost of not acting in their own self-interest against the hypothetical moral value of adopting a Kantian form of behaviour, asking what would happen if everyone else acted in the same way as they did. If individuals behave this way, then altruism matters and it may induce individuals to cut back their consumption. But nevertheless the optimal environmental tax is exactly the same as the standard Pigovian tax.

傳統探討利潤移轉效果的租稅競爭文獻中，忽略廠商租稅規避效果對公共財的影響。然而，在貿易自由化與國際化興盛的時代下，廠商對於國與國之間的租稅安排是複雜且不可避免，所以在探究租稅競爭時，租稅規避也是一項重要的考量因素。因此本文以Lai (2006) 一文為基礎，建構一個具有利潤移轉效果的國際租稅競爭模型，分別為Cournot數量競爭與Bertrand價格競爭，來探討廠商租稅規避效果對國際租稅競爭導致公共財提供量不足的影響問題。 本文章有幾點發現：Cournot 數量競爭下，避稅效果會強化稅基、稅收效果，和利潤移轉效果，加劇公共財提供數量不足的問題。而Bertrand價格競爭下，避稅效果同樣會使公共財提供量下降，但此模型下的利潤移轉效果對公共財影響為正向，使得公共財數量皆大於Cournot模型之下。此外，本文也探討眾多參數對政府最適決策的影響。 / The traditional literatures of tax competition, which include the rent shifting effect, ignore the impact of tax avoidance effect on public goods. However, the taxation arrangements between countries which firms face are complex and inevitable in this era of trade liberalization and internationalization. Therefore, when investigating tax competition, we should consider an important factor- tax avoidance. So, this paper is based on Lai (2006) to build an international tax competition model containing rent shifting effect. We will discuss the problem of insufficient public goods and how tax avoidance effect influence this question in Cournot competition and Bertrand competition. This conclusion shows that tax avoidance effect enhances tax-base effect, revenue effect and rent shifting effect in Cournot competition. In this condition, the issue of insufficient public goods will worsen. In Bertrand competition, tax avoidance effect will also make the quantity of public goods fall. But rent shifting effect in this model is so good for public goods that the quantity of public goods is larger than Cournot competition. Furthermore, this paper also uses software to test many parameters and finds the parameters how to influence government's optimal decision.

Notre thèse a pour objectif de renouveler la perception que nous avons habituellement de l’aide publique au développement (APD) à travers un nouveau concept, celui de « biens publics internationaux et mondiaux ». L’aide internationale ne doit plus être fondée exclusivement sur le caractère « charitable » ou/et « intéressé » des pays du Nord, mais sur une prise de conscience effective et collective concernant la préservation des intérêts communs à tous les Etats. En ce sens, nous entendons démontrer que le concept de BPIM peut éclairer d’un jour nouveau celui d’aide publique au développement (APD) et conduire à une conception élargie de la coopération internationale dans la mesure où la fourniture à la collectivité de ce type de biens est un enjeu fondamental pour la communauté du développement. / The objective of the present work is to present a renewed perspective for the study of Official Development Assistance (ODA) through the new concept of “International and Global Public Goods” (IGPG). International assistance should no longer be solely based on the “charitable” and/or “self-interested” behaviour of the North, but should be motivated by the collective realisation that such assistance preserves the common interests of all States. To this effect, the present work seeks to demonstrate that the IGPG concept sheds a new light on our understanding of ODA leading to a larger conceptualisation of international cooperation, where supplying such public goods becomes a fundamental stake for development.

Radko Hokovský Border Security of the Schengen Area from the Perspective of the Public Goods Theory Abstract In the context of increasing illegal immigration to the European Union, doubts arise whether Schengen Area is fit to face this challenge, or whether it needs to be reformed. The aim of this dissertation thesis is to clarify questions surrounding functionality of the Border Security System of the Schengen Area by applying the theory of public goods. The main inquiry of the thesis is, whether it is necessary to further strengthen the EU competences in order to improve the functioning of the Schengen Border Security System (SBSS). First, a model of an ideal- type border security system is constructed in order to identify core functions of border security in relation to protection from illegal immigration: (a) deterrence of illegal immigrants, (b) prevention of illegal border crossings, (c) interdiction of illegal immigrants, (d) apprehension of illegal immigrants, (e) apprehension of illegal residents, and (f) removal of illegal population. Second, theory of public goods is introduced as an analytical framework, which allows to identify possible solutions to collective action problems associated with production of public goods such as security in transnational contexts comparable to the EU. Third, the...

This study explores the role of a foreign ministry within the context of diplomacy and regional cooperation, focusing on the delivery of regional public goods. Diplomacy is described as a state of mind, an approach to the conduct and/or management of international relations that emphasises the timeous and pacific application of intelligence and tact in the making and implementation of foreign policy. As the custodian of diplomacy and diplomatic practice within a national government, the foreign ministry constitutes the primary grouping of expertise on international matters, responsible for the execution of foreign policy but also involved in the process of foreign policy making. Regional cooperation is defined as an issue-focused arrangement, in terms of which participating states may cooperate for a joint development project and facilitation of exchange of information or best practices. Within the context of regional cooperation, regional public goods are defined as any goods, commodities, services, system of rules or policy regimes that are public in nature, that generate shared benefits for the participating states and whose production is a result of collective action by the participating states. Arguably, the provision of regional public goods is considered the most effective way for regional economic communities to reduce poverty and to develop economies of scale. As an assumption, this study contends that, because of the need for regional public goods agenda-setting and policy prioritising, and based on the utility of diplomacy, the Department of International Relations and Cooperation (DIRCO) plays a central and catalytic role within the Southern African Development Community (SADC). This assumption is described and analysed at the regional strategic level, specifically related to the responsibility of SADC foreign ministries in terms of the management of regionalisation in Southern Africa; and at the national operational level, emphasising the role of DIRCO vis-à-vis the delivery of regional public goods. At the regional strategic level, it was found that diplomacy serves as an institution of regional relations; as an instrument of regional foreign policy; as an administrative function in SADC, specifically related to the responsibilities of foreign ministries; as an instrument in the formulation of regional foreign policy; and as a dialogue between regional actors. At the national operational level, it is evident that diplomacy serves as an institution in DIRCO‟s management of regional public goods delivery; as an instrument within DIRCO‟s participation in the execution of policies towards regional public goods delivery; as an administrative function within DIRCO; as an instrument in terms of DIRCO‟s role towards the formulation of policies towards regional public goods delivery; and as a dialogue between DIRCO and key regional actors in terms of regional public goods delivery. Due to the urgency and priority accorded to the delivery of regional public goods, DIRCO must consider the establishment of a core capability specialising in the technical competencies related to specific programmes within the delivery of regional public goods. / Dissertation (MDiplomatic Studies)--University of Pretoria, 2013. / Political Sciences / unrestricted

Fiscal illusion is understood to be a concept that occurs where taxpayers do not always realize how much they contribute towards government revenue in the form of taxation, or how much they receive in the form of public goods and services (Dell’ Ánno&Mourao, 2011:2). The purpose of this study was to discover the originating causes of fiscal illusion amongst individual taxpayers in South Africa. To achieve this objective, available literature was reviewed, which revealed that complexity of the tax systems is argued to be one of the causes of fiscal illusion. A study conducted in South Africa suggested that taxpayer’s perception toward tax affects their attitude (Oberholzer, 2007:45). The hypothesis derived from the literature was then applied to a real life context by conducting interviews with a sample of individual taxpayers. Based on the analysis of data obtained, the study revealed that fiscal illusion of individual taxpayers in South Africa falls within four conceptual elements namely, hidden taxes, number of taxes, double taxation and, to a limited extent, tax shifting. / Dissertation (MCom)--University of Pretoria, 2012. / Taxation / unrestricted

Les agroécosystèmes font face à un déclin des services écosystémiques (SE) de régulation, non-marchands. Nous l’interprétons via deux concepts économiques : les biens publics qui appellent une régulation, et la production jointe qui souligne les conséquences des interactions entre SE dans leur régulation.Cette thèse étudie comment accroître la fourniture de SE non-marchands par des incitations économiques, en prenant en compte la multiplicité des SE et les interactions entre eux.Nous étudions d’abord la régulation des biens publics joints à l’aide de microéconomie théorique. Ensuite, nous menons une analyse appliquée avec des données agroécologiques simulées et des méthodes numériques pour définir les solutions coût-efficientes et les incitations pour leur mise en œuvre. Nous comparons plus particulièrement les incitations basées sur les actions et sur les résultats.Nous montrons théoriquement que les interactions entre SE rendent leur régulation plus complexe, notamment avec des incitations basées sur les résultats, et quand le coût varie selon les bouquets de SE. Dans l’analyse appliquée, nous montrons que prendre en compte le coût de la fourniture des SE est crucial pour maximiser leur fourniture avec un budget limité. Nous montrons que les incitations basées sur les résultats sélectionnent les solutions coût-efficientes mais induisent un budget plus élevé que les incitations basées sur les actions, à cause des interactions entre SE. Enfin, nous montrons que l’analyse à l’échelle du paysage et l’hétérogénéité modifient les solutions qui maximisent les SE, mais pas les propriétés des deux types d’incitations.Nos résultats soulignent que les politiques agro-environnementales doivent cibler les services écosystémiques de manière intégrée, si possible à l’échelle de la ferme ou du paysage et considérer le coût de leur fourniture. Les incitations basées sur les résultats ne sont pas la solution à tous les problèmes des politiques agroenvironnementales. / Agroecosystems show a decline in regulating, non-marketed ecosystem services (ES). We interpret this decline through two economic concepts: public goods, which call for regulation, and joint production, which underlines the role of interactions among ecosystem services in their regulation.This thesis studies how to increase the provision of non-marketed ES through the implementation of economic incentives, while accounting for their multiplicity and the complex interactions among them.We first study the regulation of joint public goods with microeconomic theory. We then carry an applied analysis with simulated agroecological data and numerical methods to define cost-efficient solutions and simulate the implementation these solutions with economic incentives. We especially compare result-based and action-based incentives.We show theoretically that interactions among ES make their regulation more complex, especially with result-based incentives and when the production cost varies among bundles of ES. In the applied analysis, we show that accounting for the cost is crucial to maximise ES with a limited budget. We show that result-based incentives select cost-efficient bundles of ES but lead to higher policy budgets than action-based ones, due to interactions among ES. Eventually, we show that considering the landscape scale and heterogeneity plays on the solutions maximising ES, but not on the comparison between result-based and action-based incentives.Our results underline that agri-environmental policies need to target ES in a integrative way, at the farm or landscape scale, and consider the cost of providing non-marketed ES. Result-based incentives don’t solve all issues of agri-environmental policies.

Local governments do not operate in a vacuum. Instead, they are part of a complex “polycentric” system of governments where politically autonomous and self-ruled cities compete with one another over taxable wealth. Missing from the scholarship on metropolitan governance is an understanding of the factors driving competition among local governments. The purpose of this dissertation is to fill this gap by examining how interjurisdictional competition over economic development impacts a city’s choice of strategies for attracting business and residential investment and how those strategies affect revenue collection. First, this dissertation examines whether cities, knowing the economic development strategies of their neighboring cities, pursue similar types of businesses? Or do cities strategically target different types of businesses as a way to avoid the negative consequences of competition? Second, this dissertation explores what impact the decision to pursue similar or dissimilar businesses has on the revenue collection of local governments. Using spatial data analysis to analyze a sample of 2,299 cities, this dissertation finds general support for both theoretical frameworks presented. Overall, the findings from both analyses provide unique insights into metropolitan governance and interjurisdictional competition.