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Este trabalho tem como objetivo analisar o Plano Real e o Balanço de Pagamentos do Brasil. O que se pretende verificar é se o Plano Real é consentâneo ao sistema de Direito Brasileiro. Para tanto, a análise foi dividida em três blocos. No primeiro, que compreende os Capítulos I e II, foram apresentadas noções indispensáveis para a compreensão do assunto: de preço, poder de compra da moeda e taxa de câmbio. Na oportunidade, também se esclareceu que o Plano Real tinha como principal objetivo combater a inflação no país causada, segundo seus idealizadores, pela indexação da economia e pelo déficit público. A partir deste diagnóstico, o Plano Real é elaborado com base em três principais medidas: ajuste fiscal, criação da Unidade Real de Valor (URV) e adoção de uma âncora cambial. O segundo bloco deste trabalho, integrado pelos Capítulos III a V, vai esmiuçar esta última medida e seus efeitos, bem como as alterações legislativas provocadas pelo Plano Real (principalmente Emendas Constitucionais nº 5 a 9, todas de 1995, e Lei nº 9.069/1995). Aqui também se demonstrará como o Plano Real consagrou a ideologia preconizada pelo Consenso de Washington. No último bloco, composto pelo Capítulo VI, são analisados os efeitos provocados no nível de endividamento público decorrentes das medidas adotadas pelo Plano Real e a alteração das regras jurídicas que tratam da dívida pública que vieram ao encontro dele (principalmente Lei Complementar n° 101/2000). Neste ponto, a partir de um estudo sobre os princípios jurídicos que regem a atividade da administração pública, concluímos que o sistema jurídico brasileiro oferece fundamento suficiente para superação das regras jurídicas (e ideologia) adotadas no país com o advento do Plano Real. / The purpose of this thesis is to analyze the Real Plan, the Brazilian Balance of Payments and if the Real Plan is supported by the Brazilian law system. The analysis is divided into three blocks. First, in Chapters I and II, some indispensable concepts are presented: price, purchasing power of money and exchange rate. On the occasion, it was clarified that the Real Plan had as its main objective fight inflation in the country caused by, according to its creators, the indexation of the economy and the public deficit. Based on that diagnosis, the Real Plan counted on three measures: fiscal adjustment, creation of the Real Value Unit (URV) and adoption of a fixed exchange rate. The second block, through Chapters III to V, scrutinizes the latter measure and its effects, as well as legislative changes brought by the Real Plan (mainly Constitutional Amendments 5-9, all of 1995, and Law nº 9.069/1995). It also demonstrates that the Real Plan established the ideology advocated by the Washington Consensus. In the final section, composed of Chapter VI, the effects of Real Plan on public debt and the change of legal rules on that matter (mainly Law nº 101/2000) are analyzed. At this point, from a study of constitutional principles, we conclude that the Brazilian legal system provides sufficient basis to overcome the legal rules (and ideology) adopted in the country with the advent of the Real Plan.

Este trabalho tem como objetivo analisar o Plano Real e o Balanço de Pagamentos do Brasil. O que se pretende verificar é se o Plano Real é consentâneo ao sistema de Direito Brasileiro. Para tanto, a análise foi dividida em três blocos. No primeiro, que compreende os Capítulos I e II, foram apresentadas noções indispensáveis para a compreensão do assunto: de preço, poder de compra da moeda e taxa de câmbio. Na oportunidade, também se esclareceu que o Plano Real tinha como principal objetivo combater a inflação no país causada, segundo seus idealizadores, pela indexação da economia e pelo déficit público. A partir deste diagnóstico, o Plano Real é elaborado com base em três principais medidas: ajuste fiscal, criação da Unidade Real de Valor (URV) e adoção de uma âncora cambial. O segundo bloco deste trabalho, integrado pelos Capítulos III a V, vai esmiuçar esta última medida e seus efeitos, bem como as alterações legislativas provocadas pelo Plano Real (principalmente Emendas Constitucionais nº 5 a 9, todas de 1995, e Lei nº 9.069/1995). Aqui também se demonstrará como o Plano Real consagrou a ideologia preconizada pelo Consenso de Washington. No último bloco, composto pelo Capítulo VI, são analisados os efeitos provocados no nível de endividamento público decorrentes das medidas adotadas pelo Plano Real e a alteração das regras jurídicas que tratam da dívida pública que vieram ao encontro dele (principalmente Lei Complementar n° 101/2000). Neste ponto, a partir de um estudo sobre os princípios jurídicos que regem a atividade da administração pública, concluímos que o sistema jurídico brasileiro oferece fundamento suficiente para superação das regras jurídicas (e ideologia) adotadas no país com o advento do Plano Real. / The purpose of this thesis is to analyze the Real Plan, the Brazilian Balance of Payments and if the Real Plan is supported by the Brazilian law system. The analysis is divided into three blocks. First, in Chapters I and II, some indispensable concepts are presented: price, purchasing power of money and exchange rate. On the occasion, it was clarified that the Real Plan had as its main objective fight inflation in the country caused by, according to its creators, the indexation of the economy and the public deficit. Based on that diagnosis, the Real Plan counted on three measures: fiscal adjustment, creation of the Real Value Unit (URV) and adoption of a fixed exchange rate. The second block, through Chapters III to V, scrutinizes the latter measure and its effects, as well as legislative changes brought by the Real Plan (mainly Constitutional Amendments 5-9, all of 1995, and Law nº 9.069/1995). It also demonstrates that the Real Plan established the ideology advocated by the Washington Consensus. In the final section, composed of Chapter VI, the effects of Real Plan on public debt and the change of legal rules on that matter (mainly Law nº 101/2000) are analyzed. At this point, from a study of constitutional principles, we conclude that the Brazilian legal system provides sufficient basis to overcome the legal rules (and ideology) adopted in the country with the advent of the Real Plan.

Les impacts environnementaux sont un défi global. Le programme sur l’Homme et la Biosphère de l’UNESCO (MAB) peut donner un appui international à un de ces défis que l’humanité doit relever : comment arriver à promouvoir un développement économique, social et politique tout en conservant les ressources naturelles limitées dont nous disposons. Cette thèse propose une vision historique du programme afin de comprendre son évolution et de mettre en avant la relation entre les sphères politique et scientifique qui l´ont dirigé. Les cas d´étude du Mexique, du Chili et de la République d´Haïti, mettront en lumière les défis que ces pays doivent relever et la manière dont le Programme a été adapté au niveau national. Deux groupes d´acteurs, scientifiques et instances politiques, ont façonné le programme tout au long de son histoire et maintenu le dialogue pour adapter les principes du Programme MAB dans les Réserves de Biosphère. Par ailleurs, la toute récente création d´une Réserve de Biosphère transfrontalière entre la République d´Haïti et la République Dominicaine est un exemple de la collaboration et du rôle qu´ont joué d´autres instances de l´UNESCO telles que les Commissions Nationales et les Délégations Permanentes. / Environmental challenges have a significant impact. The Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme of UNESCO provides international support to one of the challenges facing humanity; that is how to achieve economic, social and political development and to promote the conservation of limited natural resources at the same time.This thesis takes into account a historical vision of the programme at the global level to understand its evolution and to highlight the relationship between the political and scientific spheres of the programme.On the other hand, it presents three study cases in different countries: Mexico, Chile and the Republic of Haiti to demonstrate how the programme has been adapted on the national level and the challenges they face. Two groups of actors have shaped the programme throughout its history, scientists and political bodies. They have maintained dialogues to adopt the principles of the MAB Programme in the Biosphere Reserves. Moreover, the recent creation of a Transboundary Biosphere Reserve between the Republic of Haiti and the Dominican Republic is an example of collaboration, but also it highlights the importance of other bodies of UNESCO such as the National Commissions and Permanent Delegations in policy-making.

Knowledge of the interactions among species and communities is vital for their management and protection. Increasingly, the role of marine protected areas in this regard is being recognised, primarily because of the potential for previously-harvested species to increase in density and biomass, and the linkages among species to be restored. Monitoring and research was conducted within and surrounding two marine reserves on the east coast of the North Island of New Zealand – Te Tapuwae o Rongokako, near Gisborne, and Te Angiangi, south of Napier. The aim was to describe the biological characteristics of spiny lobsters (Jasus edwardsii) in the absence of fishing, and to describe the effects of fishing and protection on lobster populations and the communities of which they are a component. Diver and pot surveys showed that lobsters were significantly more abundant within the reserves than in the surrounding fisheries and that the populations were comprised of a larger proportion of legal-sized individuals. Higher female fecundity within Te Tapuwae o Rongokako Marine Reserve compared with the surrounding fishery was proposed to be primarily a result of increased availability of large males within the reserve. The impact of the fishery on lobsters was also evidenced in the lower tail width to carapace length ratio of the fished population compared to the population within Te Tapuwae o Rongokako Marine Reserve, due to the minimum legal size for Jasus edwardsii in New Zealand being based on tail width. The largest tagging study ever to be conducted in a New Zealand marine reserve showed that sublegal male lobsters within Te Tapuwae o Rongokako Marine Reserve were growing on average faster than the same sized individuals outside the reserve, potentially as a result of the effects of handling and / or size-selective fishing. A decrease in growth rate over time was recorded in male lobsters within the reserve, which coincided with an increase in catch per unit effort and may indicate that density-dependent effects are operating. Distinct seasonal movements of tagged lobsters were recorded, with the vast majority of movements taking place within reefs. Where the boundaries of the reserve crossed reef habitat, significant movement of lobsters across the boundaries occurred. Lobsters within Te Tapuwae o Rongokako Marine Reserve not only exhibited cannibalistic behaviour but foraged during the day, including on intertidal reef platforms at high tide, potentially as a behavioural response to increased competition for food – behaviour not previously reported for this species. Outside the reserve, lobster bait apparently provided an alternative protein source but despite this supplementation of diet, these lobsters were in poorer nutritional condition, as evidenced by their lower body weights relative to carapace length and tail width for both sexes. Lobsters outside the reserve were also significantly more affected by a bacterial infection associated with handling, than lobsters within the reserve. These findings have significant implications for fisheries management and for the design and management of marine protected areas (MPAs). This study demonstrates that many of the biological parameters used in evaluating harvest strategies in the New Zealand lobster fishery may be biased unless collected from populations with a natural size structure, such as may occur within marine protected areas.

Includes bibliographical references.

This research explores differences in environmental worldviews and connections to the land globally and more specifically in a case study of NGOs working in the Ecuadorian Cloud Forest. The aims of this project are to investigate different environmental worldviews expressed between western NGOs and non western local NGOs and to pose these questions 1) what environmental worldviews and ethics are at play in addressing conservation globally and specifically in the Cloud Forest of Ecuador? 2) How do these worldviews influence models for conservation? 3) How do locally-run projects differ from foreign NGOs in addressing the combined needs of the environment and the people in Ecuador? I work to establish a framework for comparing the environmental worldviews of foreign environmental NGOs that of local NGOs, by researching environmental worldviews around the world as influenced by culture, society, history and religion. By using research on case studies done by Jim Igoe, Carolyn Merchant, John Schelhas and Max Pfeffer, I explore the dominant Western worldview of conservation and how its introduction of the National Park model has impacted local communities globally. By comparing this Western worldview of conservation via preservation in National Parks to the nonwestern worldview of integrative models for conservation, I hope to establish a framework for how looking at conservation from the perspective of local communities may prove more beneficial to the future of conservation projects globally. This case study centers around four main community-based conservation projects in the Ecuadorian Cloud Forest and asks how their grassroots operations differ from the Ecuadorian National Park system in their efforts to educate and support local communities. This project proposes to dissect these projects designed by local and foreign NGOs to see how they are shaped by their environmental worldviews and whether that worldview includes just the needs of the environment or takes into account the needs of the people as well. This is done through a combination of participant observation and semi-structured open-ended interviews. All data in this ethnography is qualitative and draws on three bodies of literature that serve as frames or approaches to this topic: environmental worldviews, political ecology, and environmental justice. By using these three approaches I show that the environment and ultimately efforts for conservation do not exist within a vacuum but rather lay within a broader context of beliefs, society, and history. / Graduation date: 2012

The empirical results reached in this thesis contradict the traditional theoretical view of money as being exogenously introduced into an economy as a medium of exchange intended to reduce the transactions costs associated with barter. Instead money was endogenously created in the form of credit. Thus, the long run neutrality of money also is called into question. The varying quality of different kinds of money reflects the demand for them. If legal tender was of higher quality than private promissary notes, it was because the former were in greater demand. Concisely put, the market determines the value, and therefore the quality, of various kinds of money. The principal problem addressed in this thesis is how, during the expansive nineteenth century, it was possible to satisfy the ever growing need for credit and means of payment without sacrificing the fixed exchange rate. Particular attention is paid to the private note issuing banks, the so called Enskilda banks, that dominated the Swedish banking system throughout the nineteenth century. In addition to their note issuing, the Enskilda banks were characterized by unlimited owner liability. An examination of the ongoing political process from a rational choice perspective, indicates that initially the concept of note issuing Enskilda banks enjoyed wide spread support. They were considered to be a reasonable response to the problem of establishing a commercial banking system in an illiquid economy. The distribution of political and economic power in favor of the Crown and the Nobility included their control over the issuance of bank charters. The monopolistic policy they followed in this regard, however, resulted in growing hostility towards these. As a result, starting in the middle 1860's, a more liberal attitude towards the establishment of banks began to prevail. By the end of the nineteenth century, various political interest were able to engineer the revocation of the Enskilda banks’ note issuing rights. The special characteristics of the Enskilda banks, the right to issue bank notes and the unlimited liability of their owners, have caused them to be perceived as outdated, at least once Joint Stock banks were introduced. In contrast to the Enskilda banks, these were unable to issue notes but instead provided their owners with limited liability. The thesis demonstrates that, given the initial illiquidity of the Swedish economy, the Enskilda banks actually were the more efficient alternative. Indeed, the note issuing privileges of the Enskilda banks became one of the principal factors behind the development of liquid domestic capital markets. An empirical study that includes the most basic constraints faced by the nineteenth century Swedish economy, the demands of the specie standard and the general shortages of reliable means of payment and of credit, reveals that the Enskilda bank system can not, strictly speaking, be considered an example of free banking. Instead of holding specie reserves, the Enskilda banks backed their notes with central bank (Riksbank) notes. This was not because the public preferred Enskilda bank to Riksbank notes.  Rather it was the result of a monetary adverse selection process; Gresham’s Law.  Previously utilized, lower quality, means of payment were replaced by Enskilda bank notes. By accepting some of the discount costs, the Enskilda banks made their notes circulate at par with Riksbank notes. Thus a domestic specie exchange system was created. The note issuance of the Enskilda banks paved the way for the deposit based commercial banking system that followed, and it was essential for the monetization of the economy that occurred during the late 1860's. The long run expansion of the money supply was unrelated to growth in Riksbank reserves, specie holdings or the monetary base. Other countries operating under the specie standard also experienced monetary growth, indicating that the specie standard actually was a system of credit. Money supply, as measured in terms of Riksbank and Enskilda bank notes held by the public, eventually reflected the level of output (GDP).  VAR-tests indicated that annual changes in the level of Riksbank reserves preceded changes in the money supply which, in turn, preceded changes in the level of prices, thus supporting the price quantity theory. These results are summarized in a regression model that estimates domestic price movements as a function of current changes in international prices and GDP and of lagged changes in domestic prices and the money supply. The final chapter is an empirical analysis of the support provided to the Swedish banking system during the most severe financial crises of the nineteenth century.  Maintaining the specie standard was over riding goal of the Riksbank. In times of crises, this concern prevented the Bank from supporting the banking system in accord with the classical lender of last resort recipe; to inject liquidity and briefly suspend convertibility. The thesis argues that in a transitional economy, such as that of nineteenth century Sweden, the fixed exchange rate makes it impossible in times of crisis to support the banks at all costs. Doing so might well convert a banking crisis into a currency crisis. Indeed, this is exactly what has happened in various countries on several occasions during the late twentieth century. Instead the appropriate procedure for acting as lender of last resort in a transitional economy is to initially support the banks, but only as long as central bank reserves are not exhausted. Should the seriousness of the crisis make this insufficient, the authorities should then proceed to import high powered money as a way of supplementing their reserves. The possibility that such action will be needed makes it particularly important that the country’s public finances be kept in good order. / <p>Diss. Stockholm : Handelshögskolan, 2003. Sammanfattning på engelska</p>

The thesis analyses relationships between ecological and social systems in the context of coastal ecosystems. It examines human impacts from resource extraction and addresses management and governance behind resource exploitation. The main premises are that a lack of ecological knowledge leads to poor ecosystem management and that the dichotomy between social and natural systems is an artificial one. The thesis illustrates the importance of basing resource management on the ecological conditions of the resource and its ecosystem. It also demonstrates the necessity of accounting for the human dimension in ecosystem management and the challenges of organising human actions for sustainable use of ecosystem services in the face of economic incentives that push users towards short-term extraction. Many Caribbean coral reefs have undergone a shift from coral to macroalgal domination. An experiment on Glovers Reef Atoll in Belize manually cleared patch reefs in a no-take zone and a fished zone (Papers I and II). The study hypothesised that overfishing has reduced herbivorous fish populations that control macroalgae growth. Overall, management had no significant effect on fish abundance and the impacts of the algal reduction were short-lived. This illustrated that the benefits of setting aside marine reserves in impacted environments should not be taken for granted. Papers III and IV studied the development of the lobster and conch fisheries in Belize, and the shrimp farming industry in Thailand respectively. These studies found that environmental feedback can be masked to give the impression of resource abundance through sequential exploitation. In both cases inadequate property rights contributed to this unsustainable resource use. The final paper (V) compared the responses to changes in the resource by the lobster fisheries in Belize and Maine in terms of institutions, organisations and their role in management. In contrast to Maine’s, the Belize system seems to lack social mechanisms for responding effectively to environmental feedback. The results illustrate the importance of organisational and institutional diversity that incorporate ecological knowledge, respond to ecosystem feedback and provide a social context for learning from and adapting to change.

A presente tese, constituída por estudo de caso, se inscreve no contexto da questão ambiental que, na atualidade, problematiza a degradação das condições de vida no planeta e as evidências segundo as quais o modelo de crescimento econômico, cuja tendência tem provocado crescente esgotamento e destruição dos recursos naturais e energéticos não-renováveis, é responsável pela perda da biodiversidade e a contaminação dos ecossistemas terrestres. Ao mesmo tempo, favorece uma crise social acentuando as discriminações, as desigualdades socioeconômicas e os processos de exclusão. Estamos vivendo uma crise socioambiental a ser abordada pela reflexão científica e pela revisão dos valores e modelos que inspiram a gestão dos recursos naturais. Os problemas ambientais têm ocupado parte significativa da agenda dos políticos, dos economistas, dos juristas, dos meios de comunicação. Ademais, estão tendo adesão da opinião pública. A cada dia os movimentos ambientalistas se fortalecem e impõem medidas de proteção e de mudanças nos comportamentos em relação aos problemas ambientais, destacando os desafios atuais para alcançarmos um equilíbrio ecológico e uma equidade social. Hoje, a proteção à biodiversidade é uma preocupação. Com esse estudo procuro mostrar como diante das pressões e ameaças advindas do predomínio de formas ambientalmente predatórias de exploração dos recursos naturais, a criação de áreas naturais protegidas está sendo considerada uma estratégia de controle do território, sobretudo por definir limites para o uso e ocupação bem específicos. Mas o estabelecimento, sua existência e gestão têm tido implicações diversas, especialmente para as condições de vida das comunidades circunvizinhas. Este estudo de caso examina o processo de criação da RPPN Serra das Almas, o trabalho desenvolvido na Reserva, as características e repercussões destas atividades nas comunidades localizadas no entorno da área de proteção ambiental. Por meio de uma metodologia qualitativa, exploratória, descritiva e interpretativa, a pesquisa de campo foi direcionada para identificar a percepção da população do entorno acerca da existência da Reserva, e as mudanças decorrentes da implantação de uma área de proteção ambiental. Palavras-chave: Questão Ambiental, Biodiversidade, Bioma Caatinga, Áreas de Proteção Ambiental, Reservas Privadas e Comunidades do Entorno. / La presente tesis, constituida por estudio de caso, se inscribe en el contexto de la cuestión ambiental que en la actualidad problematiza la degradación de las condiciones de vida en el planeta y las evidencias según las cuales el modelo de crecimiento económico, cuya tendencia ha venido provocando un creciente agotamiento y destrucción de los recursos naturales y energéticos no-renovables, es responsable de la pérdida de biodiversidad y de la contaminación de los ecosistemas terrestres. Al mismo tiempo dicho modelo económico favorece una crisis social al acentuar las discriminaciones, las desigualdades socioeconómicas y los procesos de exclusión. La sociedad vive actualmente una crisis socio-ambiental a ser abordada por la reflexión científica y por la revisión de los valores y modelos que inspiran la gestión de los recursos naturales. Los problemas ambientales han venido ocupando parte significativa de la agenda de los políticos, de los economistas, de los juristas, de los medios de comunicación y asimismo, cuentan con la adhesión de la opinión pública. A cada día los movimientos ambientalistas se fortalecen e imponen medidas de protección y de cambios en los comportamientos relacionados a los problemas ambientales, destacando los desafíos actuales que deben vencerse a fin de lograr un equilibrio ecológico y una equidad social. Hoy, la protección a la biodiversidad es una preocupación y a través del presente estudio la autora ha procurado mostrar por qué, ante las presiones y amenazas advenidas del predominio de formas ambientalmente predatorias de explotación de los recursos naturales, la creación de áreas naturales protegidas viene siendo considerada una estrategia de control del territorio, sobre todo porque define una forma de uso y ocupación con límites bien específicos. Sin embargo, el establecimiento, la existencia y la gestión de estas áreas naturales, ha tenido implicaciones diversas en las condiciones de vida de las comunidades circundantes. Este estudio de caso examina el proceso de creación de la RPPN Serra das Almas, el trabajo desarrollado en la Reserva, las características y repercusiones de estas actividades en las comunidades localizadas en el entorno del área de protección ambiental. A través de una metodología cualitativa, exploratoria, descriptiva e interpretativa, la investigación de campo ha sido orientada en el sentido de identificar la percepción de la población del entorno acerca de la existencia de la Reserva, y de los cambios derivados de la implantación de un área de protección ambiental. / This thesis consists by case study, applies in the environmental context issues that in the present, discusses the degradation of the planet’s living conditions and the evidences by which the economic growth model, has caused the growing exhaustion and destruction of natural resources and non-renewable energies, is responsible for the loss of biodiversity and the contamination of terrestrial ecosystems. At the same time, promotes a social crisis emphasizing discrimination, socioeconomic inequalities and exclusion processes. We are living a socio-environmental crisis to be broach by scientific reflection and by revision of values and models that inspire the management of natural resources. Environmental issues have occupied a significant part of the agenda of politicians, economists, lawyers and the media. Moreover, they are having the support of public opinion. Each day, the environmental movements get strengthen and imposes protection actions and also the changing of behavior regarding to environmental issues, highlighting the current challenges to reach an ecological balance and social equity. Today, the protection of biodiversity is a concern. With this study I try to show in front of all pressures and threats from the predominance of environmentally predatory exploration of natural resources, the creation of protected natural areas is considered a strategy of controlling the territory, especially to set limits for the use and a well specific occupation. But the establishment, its existence and management has had several implications, especially for the living conditions of surrounding communities. This case study examines the creating process of the RPPN Serra das Almas, the work developed at the Reserve, the characteristics and repercussions of these activities in the communities located around the area of environmental protection. Through a qualitative methodology, exploratory, descriptive and interpretive, the field research has directed to identify the perception of the surrounding population about the existence of the Reserve, and the changes resulting from an implementation of an environmental protection area.