本文的主要目的在於探討亞洲國家央行外匯存底的需求，研究的國家包括韓國、大陸、印度、新加坡、台灣與日本。透過使用1987年Engle-Granger的共整合分析法，我們發現這六國的外匯存底需求與其解釋變數具有共整合的現象。共整合現象的存在反映了這些國家的外匯存底需求存在長期的均衡關係。此外，為了進一步了解短期經濟的干擾如何影響外匯存底的需求，本文採用誤差修正模型做為分析工具，與過去文獻不同的是，本文的實證結果顯示本文所研究的六個國家之外匯存底顯著的受到貨幣成長率的影響，依據誤差修正模型的調整項亦可發現當外匯存底需求偏離長期均衡值時，此六國的調整速度相當慢，絕對值都在0.5以下，由於當一個經濟體系允許以緩慢的修正速度調整至長期均衡，必須擁有大量的外匯存底，由於本文所挑選的國家為全球著名的外匯存底持有國，其央行皆持有巨額的外匯存底，故本文的實證結果與理論假設一致。 / The primary purpose of this paper is to explore the demand characteristics for international reserves in some Asian countries including Korea, China, India, Singapore, Taiwan, and Japan. After applying the cointegration test of Engle-Granger (1987), we discover that the non-stationary macro time series of the group of the countries under study are cointegrated. Hence, international reserves in these Asian countries have displayed a long-run relationship with some determinants for the past several decades. Besides, we adopt an error correcting mechanism specification to investigate the short-run dynamic process of reserve holdings. Based on the error correction model (ECM), the rate of monetary growth is found to have a significant effect on reserve holdings in all of the six countries. In the end, the properties of the error correction terms among these countries are examined. We find that the absolute value of the error correction term is less than 0.5 in these economies. It implies that all of these six countries have very low adjustment speed of the demand for reserves. Owing to the huge stock of reserve holdings in this area, the results appear to be sensible.

L'élevage de la chèvre « Baladi » au Liban souffre d'un problème de disponibilité alimentaire responsable des faibles performances établies de la race, du fait de sa dépendance majoritaire des zones de pâturage naturel et de la rareté des terrains fourragers ou de l'adoption du système intensif. Dans ce contexte agroclimatique particulier, cette étude se propose d'identifier la conduite optimale, à mi-chemin entre système extensif compromettant la production et la durabilité de l'élevage et système hors-sol qui ne saurait valoriser les aptitudes de la race et les parcours de la région. En effet, les conditions climatiques difficiles de la région d'étude impliquent l'insertion d'une dimension temporelle dans la conceptualisation de la conduite optimale, prenant en considération les fluctuations saisonnières non négligeables des ressources alimentaires naturelles. Comparée à la conduite extensive traditionnelle et à la complémentation largement moins adoptée, une conduite où les chèvres laitières seraient mises au pâturage durant les mois de printemps caractérisé par la prolifération des espèces végétales en vert et enfermées durant la sécheresse estivale paraît a priori adaptée aux conditions du milieu et aux objectifs zootechniques et socioéconomiques. Le cas échéant, le système intensif étant rarement prisé par les éleveurs de la région, l'efficacité des parcours à résidus agricoles ou fourragers aura également été évaluée afin de trouver un optimum zootechnique et économique. Par la suite, il a fallu mettre en place un outil d'évaluation des caractéristiques nutritives des parcours de la région d'étude, des quantités ingérées par les animaux lors du pâturage ou à l'auge et finalement de leur impact direct sur la production laitière et la satisfaction des besoins. L'évaluation des différentes conduites se reflétant dans un nombre de réponses en cours de lactation, un suivi d'analyse continu a été instauré permettant d'apprécier l'état corporel des animaux (poids, note d'état corporel, métabolites énergétiques), la production laitière (rendement, durée de lactation et composition du lait) et les performances reproductives (prolificité et croissance des chevreaux). Les capacités d'adaptation des animaux aux restrictions alimentaires dans les différentes conduites ont ainsi été testées. Ces expérimentations réalisées sur deux ans de suite ont montré que ces chèvres manifestent de réelles capacités adaptatives aux aléas alimentaires. En particulier, à chaque fois que l'alimentation le permet, l'énergie disponible est orientée préférentiellement vers la production laitière avec des rebonds relativement importants. Ces rebonds se produisent quel que soit le niveau de production laitière et pendant pratiquement toute la lactation. Parallèlement, on observe une reconstitution lente et régulière des réserves adipeuses qui s'accélère en fin de lactation à un moment où les femelles sont généralement mises à la reproduction, alors que les productions laitières baissent inexorablement. Cette thèse a donc abouti à l'acquisition de connaissances originales sur un modèle animal peu étudié caractérisé par des capacités adaptatives remarquables qui ne se manifestent pas de façon aussi marquée chez les chèvres sélectionnées des zones tempérées / Adaptives capacities of Baladi goats fed on semi-arid rangelands of Bekaa valley (Lebanon)ABSTRACTThe Lebanese Baladi goat dairy production sector suffers from a problem of food availability which is responsible of the animal's poor performances, due to its dependence towards natural rangelands and the scarcity of crop residues and forage pastures as well as of the adoption of intensive systems.In this particular agroclimatic context, this study aims to identify the optimal conduct for this goat, half-way between an extensive system where production and durability are compromised and an intense one where the aptitudes of the breed and the variety of the region's pastures are not valorized. In fact, the region's difficult climatic conditions require the insertion of a temporal dimension in the conceptualization of the optimal conduct, considering the important seasonal fluctuations of the natural feed resources. Compared to the traditional extensive conduct and to the much less adopted supplementation, a conduct where the goats were pasture driven during the spring characterized by the proliferation of green plants and kept indoors during the summer season seems a priori adapted to the local conditions and to the technical and economic objectives. However, the intensive system being rarely considered by the local farmers, the efficiency of agricultural pastures such as crop residues and forages would also have been tested in order to find an optimum between production and feasibility. Thus, an evaluation tool of the pastures' nutrition values, the quantities ingested by the animals during grazing and indoors and finally of their impact on the milk production and satisfaction of feed requirements was implemented. The evaluation of the different tested conducts were reflected on a number of physiological responses during lactation such as the animals' body reserves (body weight, body condition score, NEFA), milk production (quantities, duration and milk composition: milk fat and milk protein contents) and reproductive performances (kids' number, birth weights and growth). The animals' adaptive capacities to different food restrictions situations are hence here tested.These trials realized on two subsequent years showed that this breed demonstrates clear adaptive capacities facing feed fluctuations. A particular adaptation is the orientation of the available extra energy towards milk production with relatively important rebounds whenever allowed by refeeding. These rebounds occurred whatever the initial milk production level and during practically the whole lactation period. In parallel, we observed a slow and regular reconstitution of the body reserves which accelerates at the end of lactation, when the females are getting ready for reproduction, while the milk production suddenly breaks down. In consequent, this study has collaborated in acquiring new original information about an original animal breed characterized by special adaptive capacities which don't generally show in selected high production breeds.Kewords : Baladi goat, feeding conduct, pasture, indoors, adaptive capacities, feeding behaviour, body reserves, milk production, reproductive performances

Pour faire face à des perturbations environnementales, les organismes ont développé des défenses antitoxiques couramment utilisés comme biomarqueurs dans l'évaluation de la qualité des milieux. Cependant, de nombreux facteurs confondants comme la température ou le genre, influencent la réponse de ces biomarqueurs. Il est ainsi nécessaire de connaitre les effets de ces facteurs afin d'imputer correctement la réponse biologique mesurée à la présence de polluants. Dans ce contexte, nous avons choisi d'étudier l'influence d'un parasite acanthocéphale, Polymorphus minutus, transmis horizontalement et de microsporidies à transmission verticale, sur les réponses physiologiques de leur hôte, Gammarus roeseli, un crustacé amphipode d'eau douce d'intérêt écotoxicologique. Pour cela, nous avons choisi d'étudier le glutathion, tripeptide jouant un rôle central dans les systèmes antitoxiques, sa synthèse (i.e. activité gamma-glutamylcystéine ligase), les réserves énergétiques (i.e. lipides, glycogène, protéines) et un biomarqueur d'effets toxiques, le malondialdéhyde. L'influence du parasitisme a été appréhendé dans différents cas d'études: (i) chez G. roeseli infecté par P. minutus, (ii) chez G. roeseli infecté par des microsporidies (Dictyocoela roeselum essentiellement) et (iii) chez G. roeseli co-infecté par ces deux types de parasite. Chaque cas d'étude a été réalisé en absence de stress et lors d'une exposition au cadmium. Nous avons mis en évidence qu'en absence de contamination, la présence de P. minutus et une co-infection par P. minutus et D. roeselum affectent les biomarqueurs de G. roeseli. Après exposition au cadmium, la présence de parasites (i.e. infection simple ou co-infection) modifie la mobilisation des défenses antitoxiques et accentue les effets toxiques subits par l'hôte. Les résultats obtenus au cours de ce travail mettent en avant le caractère confondant du parasitisme en écotoxicologie et souligne l'importance de prendre en compte ce paramètre lors de l'évaluation de la qualité des milieux / To cope with environmental disturbances, organisms have developed antitoxic defenses commonly used as biomarkers in environmental risk assessment. However, many confounding factors such as temperature and gender could influence biomarker responses. It seems hence necessary to investigate their effects, in order to attribute biological responses only to pollutants. In this context, we investigated the influence of parasitism by studying the acanthocephalan parasite Polymorphus minutus, horizontally transmitted, and microsporidia parasites, vertically transmitted, on the physiological responses of their common host, the freshwater amphipod Gammarus roeseli, a classical model used in ecotoxicology. We investigated the glutathione, a tripeptide having a key role in antitoxic systems, its synthesis (i.e. gamma-glutamylcysteine ligase activity), energy reserves (i.e. lipids, glycogen, proteins) and a toxicity biomarker, the malondialdehyde. The influence of parasitism was considered in different studies: (i) in G. roeseli infected by P. minutus only, (ii) in G. roeseli infected by microsporidia (mainly Dictyocoela roeselum) and (iii) in G. roeseli coinfected by both parasites. Each study was carried out in absence of pollutants and under cadmium stress. We highlighted that, in the absence of contamination, only P. minutus and the co-infection affect the G. roeseli biomarker assessments. After cadmium exposure, the presence of parasites (i.e. single infection or co-infection) influences the mobilization of antitoxic defences, and accentuates toxic effects in their hosts. Our results underline the confounding nature of parasitism in ecotoxicology and thus, highlight the importance to take into account this parameter in the environmental risk assessment

Chez les parasites à cycle complexe et à transmission trophique, des stratégies d’exploitation de l’hôte intermédiaire ont été sélectionnées. Notamment, de nombreux parasites sont capables d’altérer le comportement de leur hôte intermédiaire (manipulation comportementale). Cette manipulation n’intervient que lorsque le stade larvaire du parasite est infectieux pour l’hôte définitif. Avant d’atteindre cette infectivité, le développement du stade larvaire n’est pas suffisamment avancé pour lui permettre de s’établir dans l’hôte définitif (il est dit non-infectieux). La transmission prématurée d’un stade non-infectieux implique alors la mort du parasite. Les parasites capables de renforcer les défenses anti-prédateurs de leur hôte intermédiaire au stade non-infectieux (i.e. de le protéger vis-à-vis de la prédation), avant de manipuler leur comportement au stade infectieux (i.e. de les exposer à la prédation par l’hôte définitif) devraient avoir été sélectionnés. Dans ces travaux de thèse, j’ai pu montrer qu’au stade larvaire non-infectieux, le parasite acanthocéphale Pomphorhynchus laevis renforce les défenses anti-prédateurs de son hôte intermédiaire amphipode, ce qui a pour effet de diminuer ses risques de prédation. Cet effet protecteur de l’hôte intermédiaire affecte négativement l’approvisionnement de l’amphipode, bien que cela n’ait aucune incidence sur l’état des réserves énergétiques de l’hôte. De même, le comportement reproducteur de l’hôte mâle n’est pas affecté par l’infection par ce stade protecteur. Les origines de cette stratégie parasitaire sont discutées, et des perspectives écologiques à ce changement comportemental de l’hôte sont suggérées / In trophically-transmitted parasites, exploitation strategies of the intermediate host have been selected, in a way increasing parasites transmission probabilities to their definitive host. Particularly, numerous parasites are able to alter their intermediate host behaviour, a phenomenon called ‘behavioural manipulation’. This manipulation only occurs when the parasite developmental stage (or larval stage) is infective for the definitive host. Before reaching this stage, the development of parasite larvae is not sufficiently advanced to allow establishment in the definitive host (this stage is thus called ‘non-infective’). Early transmission of a non-infective stage therefore implies parasite death. Parasites able to reinforce their intermediate host anti-predatory defences when non-infective (i.e. protecting them from predation), before manipulating their intermediate host behaviour when infective (i.e. exposing them to predation by definitive hosts), should have been selected. In this thesis, I showed that, when non-infective, the acanthocephalan parasite Pomphorhynchus laevis strengthens its amphipod intermediate host anti-predatory defences, which diminishes its host predation risk. This protective-like strategy negatively affects the amphipod food intake, although it has no effect on host energetic reserves. Similarly, the male amphipod reproductive behaviour is not affected by infection with a non-infective stage of the parasite. The origins of such parasitic strategy are discussed, and ecological perspectives to this host behavioural change are suggested

A dissertation submitted to the faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science Johannesburg 1997 / South Africa has recently begun a number of conservation Initiatives which link conservation with the development of people This follows a worldwide trend in which it is acknowledged that conservation cannot be undertaker without the participation of local communities who are most affected by the establishment of protected areas The Thukela Biosphere Reserve In KwaZulu/Natal South Africa iS such an Initiative The research provides an assessment of the potential of the TBR to successfully introduce a sustainable land use strategy in the region This assessment is achieved through an investigation of the historical situation as well as local communities perceptions and attitudes toward the TBR and environmental degradation These attitudes are compared to a more scientific analysis of land degradation The research made use of participatory methodologies to assess these perceptions Findings indicate that local Afrrcan communities are intensely aware of environmental degradation in the TBR A number of factors however prevent them from accepting the TBR as an effective land use option These include oppressive historical polices leading[Abbreviated [ Abstract. Open document to view full version]

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / This work describes the coastal grasslands of Mkambati Game Reserve and their suitability for the present large herbivore complement. The initial description makes use of both field survey and quantitative sampling and multivariate analysis which facilitated the production of soil and vegetation maps at tre scale of 1: 10 000. Suitability of these grasslands for herbivores is assessed in terms of both quantity and quality of food available and the present herbivore impact. Local variation in soil type was considerable. Eight standard soil forms were distinguished as well as severaI others previously undescribed. Most of the soils were dystrophic although nutrient 'hot-spots' were common. This determined floristic composition of the various communities to some extent. Three grassland communities and four subcommunities were recognized which contributed 81, 5% to the total area of the reserve. The remaining area comprised forest. wetlands. exposed rock and accommodation camps. Each grassland community was associated with particular ranges of the measured environmental variables. The standing crop of the three communities was high relative to other areas of Southern Africa. Absolute amounts varied seasonally being highest in summer and lowest in winter Partitioning between the phytomass, necromass and litter components also varied seasonally. Total standing crop increased with increasing interval since the last fire. Litter breakdown rates differed between communities and species. Forage quality was poor being lowest in autumn and winter and declining with age. This was probably a result of the dystrophic soils. Crude protein and phosphorus were limiting for several months of the year. Total forage quantity was in excess of the present herbivore needs although availability declined with age and during the non-growing season. However, the poor quality reduced the amount available such that present herbivore impact was low, at all times being less than 9%.. Removal by herbivores was highest several months after a fire when absolute amounts of various nutrients were at a maxinum per unit area. Thereafter it declined to less than 1% with aging of the sward. The implications of the results for management are discussed and future research needs identified. / AC 2018

Poucos ambientes terrestres deixaram de sofrer algum nível de interferência humana. As populações pré-históricas tiveram um papel importante na formação de determinadas paisagens e, como conseqüência, suas ações contribuíram para as características das paisagens atuais. Na Amazônia, tais transformações antropogênicas são inferidas por indícios de: (1) queimadas; (2) assentamentos; (3) ilhas de florestas manejadas; (4) diques em formatos geométricos; (5) terra preta; (6) campos elevados; (7) redes de transporte e comunicação; (8) estruturas para manejo da água e da pesca; entre outros. A partir da colonização européia no século XVI, a ocupação humana na região começou a receber novas influências. As relações com os recursos naturais estabelecidas pelas populações pré-colombianas foram muito pouco consideradas. A introdução de novas ferramentas e o choque cultural provocado pelos colonizadores alterou o nível de mobilização da energia do meio para as atividades produtivas humanas, ocasionando mudanças nos modos de vida das populações. A partir de meados do século XX, a implantação dos programas institucionais de colonização deu origem a uma nova motivação para a transformação das paisagens, pela qual a extração dos produtos florestais passou a ser uma atividade secundária, para dar lugar a uma lógica de supressão da floresta para introdução de novos elementos, que seriam produzidos para atender a um contexto externo. Além disso, o espaço passou a ser delimitado em propriedades privadas, que só seriam reconhecidas em função da supressão da floresta para dar início às atividades produtivas. Dessa forma, houve um crescimento exponencial na escala espaço-temporal das transformações das paisagens. Por meio da complementação e do confronto das perspectivas evolutivas, históricas e sociais, o presente trabalho se propôs a caracterizar as diferentes dinâmicas de ocupação nas paisagens amazônicas. O período estudado abrange desde a chegada do ser humano até os dias de hoje, buscando entender como o desenvolvimento da organização social e das tecnologias foi capaz de modificar as paisagens no passado e como o faz atualmente. Os dados foram analisados em função de um seqüenciamento temporal. Três dinâmicas de ocupação distintas foram caracterizadas e nomeadas em função dos diferentes níveis de transformação da paisagem, ao longo dos contextos históricos do período de estudo: Dinâmica da Diversificação (9000 a.C. e 1600 d.C.); Dinâmica da Simplificação (1600 d.C. e 1960 d.C.) e Dinâmica da Supressão (a partir de 1960 d.C.). Como uma das conclusões, assumiu-se que o conceito de paisagem depende da existência de dois elementos: natureza e humanidade. Enquanto esses dois elementos coexistirem, a paisagem sempre estará presente, independente de suas qualidades. Dessa forma, nos 11000 anos de convivência entre a humanidade e a floresta amazônica, não foi a sustentabilidade da paisagem que foi ameaçada e sim a sustentabilidade das próprias sociedades que dependem dela. Esse complexo cenário ecológico, social e econômico ao qual a Amazônia está atualmente submetida, tem como principal característica a presença de 85% das áreas ainda em bom estado de conservação. Tal proporção confere ao Brasil a responsabilidade de desenvolver novas técnicas de gestão ambiental que considerem as especificidades regionais, combinando o desenvolvimento econômico do país com a conservação da mais importante floresta tropical do mundo. / In this planet, very few environments are free from anthropogenic disturb. The prehistoric populations used to play significant roles for the formation of some kind of landscapes; the consequences of their actions contributed to the present landscape characteristics. At the Amazon, these transformations are inferred from anthropogenic vestiges, such as: (1) burned areas in the forest; (2) human settlements; (3) managed forest islands; (4) geometrical ditches; (5) dark soils; (6) raised fields; (7) transportation and communication networks; (8) water and fish management structures; among others. The established ways of natural resources uses by pre- Columbian population were looked to down since European colonization in the sixteenth century. The introduction of new tools and cultural shock given by European settlers changed the level of energy necessary to human productive activities, changing the population ways of life. From the middle of the twentieth century, the diffusion of institutional settlement programs led to new motivations for landscape transformation, through which the extraction of forest products has become secondary activity, and give rise to a logic of forest suppression and introduction of new production lines to external context. Furthermore, the land was delimited as private properties, which would only be recognized after forest removal in order to start productive activities. Therefore, there was an exponential growth in space-time scale of landscape transformations. Through complementation and interface among evolutionary, historical and social perspectives, this work has proposed to characterize the different settlement dynamics in the Amazon landscapes, since the arrival of human beings up to now, in order to understand how the development of social organization and technologies was able to change the landscapes in the past, and how they do it today. The data were analyzed as a temporal sequencing. Three distinct settlement dynamics were characterized and nominated considering different levels of landscape transformation, along the historical contexts of the studied periods in this work: (1) Dynamic of Diversification (9000 BC to 1600 AD); (2) Dynamic of Simplification (1600 AD to 1960 AD); and (3) Dynamic of Suppression (from 1960 AD on). A conclusion was assumed that landscape concept depends on the existence of two elements: nature and mankind. While these two elements coexist, the landscape will always be present, despite their characteristics. Thus, in 11000 years of coexistence between mankind and Amazon forest it was not threatened the landscape sustainability, but the sustainability of the societies themselves. This complex ecological, social and economical situation which Amazon is currently undergoing has as main characteristic the presence of 85% of this area in good conservation conditions. Such ratio gives to Brazil the responsibility to develop new environmental management techniques that consider the regional specificities, matching sustained economic development of the nation and conservation of the most important tropical forest of the world.

Espaces emblématiques des dynamiques complexes entre l’homme et l’écosystème dans des aires protégées abritant des ressources naturelles commune, les îles Galápagos et le Yasuní en Équateur partagent une histoire de dégradation environnementale, conflits socio-environnementaux et chaos territorial. La présence de biens communs, source d’une rente économique liée à la biodiversité et aux hydrocarbures (Yasuní) attire depuis un demi-siècle les intérêts des industriels du pétrole et du tourisme qui ont systématiquement exercé un poids déterminant sur les décisions en matière d’aménagement et de gestion de ces espaces, influant également sur leur gouvernance. Cette réalité joue à l’encontre de politiques d’aménagement territorial pour les deux espaces, Réserves de la Biosphère de l’UNESCO, depuis des décennies. Les Galápagos et le Yasuní témoignent en même temps de la manière dont les gouvernements équatoriens ont eu recours à une « instrumentation » des politiques pour décider le sort des deux aires protégées. Cette thèse montre comment un problème structurel – l’absence d’une politique d’aménagement territorial – a facilité la mobilisation d’instruments de politique pour administrer les deux réserves naturelles. L’histoire du Yasuní est un exemple éloquent de cette pratique d’instrumentation de politiques. La création du parc en 1979, puis les modifications de ses limites et le découpage de la Réserve de la Biosphère Yasuní, dont le parc est le noyau, ont été tous réalisés par des instruments de politiques. De même, aux Galápagos la puissance publique a opéré ses choix en matière d’accès aux espaces protégés et d’utilisation de leurs ressources, en privilégiant les instruments de politique. La loi spéciale des Galápagos (LOREG) a de facto gouverné l’archipel depuis son entrée en vigueur en 1998. Dans les deux cas, l’absence d’une politique d’aménagement territorial a permis l’adoption de décisions top-down sur l’administration des deux espaces.La «révolution citoyenne» du président Correa, en dépit d’une profonde refonte institutionnelle et d’un nouveau paradigme de développement – le Buen Vivir, ou Sumak Kawsay – ne saura changer la manière d’aménager les espaces des deux aires protégées. La planification est élevée à politique d’État qui prime sur toute autre politique, mais dans cette vision l’aménagement du territoire devient un instrument au service de la planification étatique.Ce travail, conduit dans une perspective interdisciplinaire en utilisant une grille de lecture encore peu explorée (les instruments de politique publique) veut aussi contribuer à de nouvelles pistes de réflexion sur l’action publique en matière d’aménagement du territoire ainsi que sur la gouvernance d’aires protégées riches en ressources naturelles communes. / Archetypes of the complex interactions between humans and ecosystems in protected areas rich in Common Pool Resources (CPR), the Galapagos Islands and the Yasuní in Ecuador share a history of environment degradation, socio-environmental conflicts and chaotic land development. The abundance of CPR, source of a lucrative rent from biodiversity and crude (in the Yasuní case) have attracted the interests of oil and tourism businesses over the last fifty years. These industries have consistently steered public decisions over the creation, spatial organisation and administration of these natural reserves, additionally affecting their governance, a reality which has hindered the implementation of land-use planning policies for these areas which are two UNESCO MAB Reserves. The Galapagos and Yasuní protected areas are also a powerful example of the peculiar way whereby Ecuador governments over the last five decades have “instrumented” policy making, preferring the use of policy tools to public policies to decide on the two areas’ fate. This thesis shows how a structural problem such as the absence of a land use planning policy, has thrust the practice of policy tools adoption, instead of policy making, to manage the two protected areas. The “revolución ciudadana” led by president Correa succeeded in re-founding State institutions and launching a new development paradigm (Sumak Kawsay or Buen Vivir) however, it did not advance on land-use management related issues particularly regarding the two areas. Correa has placed national planning at the heart of public policy making it the state policy – backed by a powerful bureaucratic structure – but in this process, land use planning is considered as an instrument in support of national planning. This research, carried out under an interdisciplinary perspective, using policy tools as analytical key, wishes to contribute new insights and methods of analysis on public land use planning and management, as well as governance of common pool resources in protected areas.

O presente trabalho discute o conceito e natureza jurídica da Cota de Reserva Ambiental (CRA) enquanto instrumento de política ambiental previsto no Novo Código Florestal Brasileiro (Lei Federal nº 12.651/12). O problema de pesquisa se funda em saber se a atual proposta de regulamentação da CRA permitirá a efetividade do instituto. Aspectos teóricos foram discutidos com base em material documental e bibliográfico, recolhidos no âmbito das ciências do direito e da economia. Ao fim, foi realizada pesquisa exploratória sobre o tema, baseada em entrevistas com gestores ambientais, analisadas sob o método dialético-qualitativo. O objetivo, de modo geral, é discutir o atual marco regulatório sobre o tema, de modo criar propostas a sua efetividade. / This paper discusses the concept and legal nature of the Environmental Reserve Quota (CRA) as an environmental policy instrument regulated by the New Brazilian Forest Code (Federal Law nº 12.651/12). The research problem seeks to identify if the current proposal for regulation of the CRA will allow the effectiveness of this institute. Theoretical aspects were discussed on the basis of documentary and bibliographic material collected in the sciences of law and economics. By the end, an exploratory research was conducted on the subject, based on interviews with environmental managers, analyzed from a dialectical qualitative method. The goal, in general, is to discuss the current regulatory framework on the subject with the intention to make proposals to its effectiveness.

A Contabilidade Financeira busca informações confiáveis que sejam razoavelmente livres de erros, viés e mostrem, fielmente, o que visam representar. A obtenção de valores ambientais com menos viés possíveis, mais acurados e comparáveis poderia, talvez, se constituir em parâmetro para definição de serviços ambientais, ensejar discussões quanto ao tratamento contábil da área do bioma preservado e, também, comercialização de certificado ambiental baseado na preservação do meio ambiente e, de forma geral, servir de subsídios para tomada de decisões empresariais e governamentais. Este trabalho tem por objetivo propor métrica de valoração de Reservas Legais e Áreas de Preservação Permanente em propriedades agrícolas, no seu estado natural, puro e ainda livre dos efeitos das ações humanas. A métrica foi desenvolvida com base no método de Custo de Oportunidade (CO), Contabilidade Emergética e Curva Ambiental de Kuznets (CAK). A referida métrica constitui-se da soma do valor do C.O. ao Valor Total do Bioma (VTB). Porém, o valor do C.O. é descontado pelo risco do negócio analisado. O VTB é estimado pela Contabilidade Emergética, sendo considerada a área do hectare preservado, em RL e/ou APP, e a área remanescente do bioma estudado. Então, o VTB é ponderado pela CAK, esta estimada pela variação dos preços da cultura agrícola analisada. Visando sua validação, estimou-se a área preservada em hectares de Reservas Legais e Áreas de Preservação Permanente de cada bioma terrestre brasileiro referente às dez culturas agrícolas que possuem maior área plantada. Das culturas utilizaram-se os dados sobre os valores brutos de produção, a variação dos preços em média nacional e a extensão territorial das unidades federais brasileiras. Utilizaram-se também os dados dos biomas terrestres brasileiros referentes às suas áreas totais e áreas remanescentes preservadas. Informações estas obtidas em consulta ao site do IBGE, IBAMA e Agrolink. Na sequência, foi aplicada a métrica para valorar os biomas preservados em nível nacional e sobre cinco culturas reais de dados coletados de empresas agrícolas. Entre os resultados obtidos com a métrica, o maior valor foi para o bioma Pampas sobre a cultura agrícola de mandioca no ano de 2010 (R$1.754,03) e o menor para o bioma Cerrado sob a cultura de trigo no ano de 2005 (R$ 53,67). A tentativa era expressar os valores, por meio da métrica proposta, que diferentes indivíduos atribuiriam aos biomas e, com isso, estimular a preservação ao viabilizar um mercado que remunere os preservadores. Trata-se de uma proposta inovadora, e os valores podem ser utilizados para auxiliar legisladores a viabilizar a regulamentação das legislações que preveem a concessão de compensações pela prestação de serviços ambientais, além de servirem como instrumentos de gestão ambiental interna às empresas, principalmente, pelo reconhecimento do potencial de benefícios dos recursos sob suas responsabilidades. / The Financial Accounting search reliable information that is reasonably free errors, bias and show, faithfully, what aim at represents. Obtaining environmental values with less bias possible, more accurate and comparable could, perhaps, constitute parameter for defining environmental services, give rise to discussions about the accounting treatment of the biome area preserved and, also, marketing of environmental certificate based on preservation the environment and, in general way, serve as support for business decisions take and government. This work aims to propose metric valuation of Legal Reserves and Permanent Preservation Areas on agricultural properties, in their natural state, pure and yet free from the effects of human actions. The metric was developed based on the method of Opportunity Cost (OC), Accounting Emergy and Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC). The metric constitutes themselves from the sum of the value of O.C. to the Biome Total Value (BTV). However, the value of O.C. is discounted by business risk analyzed. The BTV is estimated by Emergy Accounting, considering the area hectare preserved in RL and / or APP, and the remaining area of the biome studied. So, the VTB is weighted by EKC, estimated by this change in the prices of agricultural crops analyzed. Aiming validation, estimated the preserved area in hectares of Legal Reserves and Permanent Preservation Areas of each terrestrial biome Brazilian referring to the ten crops that have greater acreage. From the cultures used the data on gross production, the price variation in average national and territorial scope of the federal units of Brazil. Were also used data from the Brazilian terrestrial biomes with respect to their total areas and remaining areas preserved. Information they obtained by consulting the IBGE site, IBAMA and Agrolink. Further, we applied the metric to value biomes preserved in national and over five real cultures data collected from agricultural enterprises. Between the results obtained with the metric, the highest value was for the Pampas biome on the cassava crop in 2010 (R $ 1,754.03) and lowest for the Cerrado biome in the wheat crop in 2005 (R $ 53.67). The attempt was to express the values, through the proposed metric, which would assign individuals on different biomes and, thereby, encouraging the preservation by allowing a market to remunerate preservers. This is an innovative proposal, and the values can be used to assist legislators to enable the regulation of the laws that predict the granting compensation the provision of environmental services, besides serving as instruments of internal environmental management firms, mainly, by recognition of the potential benefits of the resources under their responsibility.