La fabrication des grandes pièces structurelles aéronautiques en alliage d'aluminium nécessite la réalisation de multiples étapes de mises en forme (laminage, matriçage, etc...) et de traitements thermiques. Les différents chargements mécaniques et thermiques subis par les pièces pendant ces étapes de fabrication induisent des déformations plastiques ainsi que des modifications de la microstructure, qui sont sources de contraintes résiduelles. La géométrie finale des pièces est obtenue par usinage, qui est généralement la dernière étape de fabrication. Jusqu'à 90% du volume de matière initial peut être enlevé durant l'usinage de grandes pièces aéronautiques, qui peuvent également présenter des géométries complexes. La redistribution des contraintes résiduelles pendant l'usinage est une des principales causes de non-conformité des pièces avec les tolérances géométriques et dimensionnelles et donc de non-acceptation de celles-ci.De nos jours, les contraintes résiduelles et leurs effets pendant l'usinage ne sont généralement pas pris en compte lors de la définition des gammes d'usinage. Ce travail de thèse vise donc à proposer une évolution dans l'établissement des gammes d'usinage des pièces de structures en alliage d'aluminium et a été construit autour de deux principaux axes de recherche: un axe numérique et un axe d'analyse mécanique.L'axe numérique est basé sur la mise en place d'une approche de modélisation et le développement d'un outil numérique adapté à la simulation de l'usinage. L'approche de modélisation a été définie à partir d'hypothèses déduites d'études bibliographiques sur les alliages d'aluminium, le procédé d'usinage et les contraintes résiduelles. Une approche numérique d'enlèvements massifs de matière a ainsi été développée et tous les développements ont été intégrés dans les codes sources de FORGE® dans un environnement parallèle.L'axe d'analyse mécanique est basé sur l'étude de la redistribution des contraintes résiduelles et des déformations associées lors de l'usinage. Une première étude appliquée à la méthode expérimentale utilisée pour déterminer les profils de contraintes résiduelles dans des tôles laminées en alliage AIRWARE® 2050-T84 a été réalisée. Les simulations de ces essais ont permis une première validation de l'outil numérique développé et ont démontré la nécessité de définir des gammes d'usinage en fonction des contraintes résiduelles. D'autres études sur l'influence de certains paramètres définis dans les gammes d'usinage sur la qualité d'usinage ont également été menées. Les simulations réalisées ont été validées par de multiples comparaisons avec des résultats expérimentaux, montrant la capacité de l'outil numérique à prédire précisément la géométrie finale des pièces.A l'aide des résultats obtenus sur les précédentes études, une procédure numérique et de premières recommandations pour la définition de gammes d'usinage permettant d'obtenir la qualité d'usinage souhaitée en tenant compte des contraintes résiduelles initiales ont été mises en place. / The manufacturing of aluminium alloy structural aerospace parts involves multiple forming (rolling, forging, etc.) and heat treatment steps. The mechanical and thermal loads that the workpieces undergo during these manufacturing steps result in unequal plastic deformation and in metallurgical changes which are both sources of residual stresses. Machining is usually the last manufacturing step during which the final geometry of the parts is obtained. Up to 90% of the initial volume of the workpiece can be removed during the machining of aerospace structural parts which can furthermore have complex geometries. The residual stress redistribution is one of the main causes of the non-conformity of parts with the geometrical and dimensional tolerance specifications and therefore of the rejection of parts.Nowadays, initial residual stresses and their effect during the machining are often not taken into account in the definition of the machining process plan. This work aims to propose an evolution in the establishment of machining process plans of aluminium structural parts. It has been organised along two principal lines of research: a numerical line and a mechanical analysis line.The numerical line is based on the development of a modelling approach and of a numerical tool adapted to the simulation of the machining process. The modelling approach has been defined based on assumptions deduced from literature reviews on aluminium alloys, on the machining process and on residual stresses. A massive material removal approach has then been developed. All the numerical developments have been implemented into the finite element software FORGE® and are suited to a parallel computing environment.The mechanical analysis line is based on the study of the residual stress redistribution and its effect on the workpiece deflections during the machining as well as on the post-machining distortion. A first study on the layer removal method used to determine the initial residual stress profiles in an AIRWARE® 2050-T84 2050-T84 alloy rolled plate has been realised. The simulation of these experiments has allowed a first validation of the numerical tool and to demonstrate the necessity to define machining process plans in function of the residual stresses. Other studies on the influence of some machining process parameters on the machining quality have then been performed. Simulation results have been validated by multiple comparisons with experimental tests, showing the capability of the numerical tool to predict the final machined part geometries.Using the results of the studies mentioned above, a numerical procedure and first recommendations for the definition of machining process plans allowing to obtain the desired machining quality depending on the initial residual stresses have been established.

Articulated haulers are fundamental equipment to transport material. The load carrying structure on a hauler consists mainly of welded frames. During welding of the frames high residual stress will be introduced. These stresses may have a significant impact on the fatigue life of the frames. This is the reason for having good knowledge of the weld residual stresses. The finite element method was used to calculate the residual stress distributions in a butt weld and a T-join weld. Simulation of the welding process with thermal and mechanical analysis was prepared by means of welding GUI implemented in LS-PrePost. The welding simulation is a computer intensive operation with high CPU time. That is why it is important to investigate which process factors that have the largest impact on welding simulation results. The aim of this thesis is to investigate the correlation between designed models in FEA software with published results of weld residual stress measurements and conclude which parameters should be mainly taken into consideration.

Residual stresses are one of the major challenges in additive manufacturing of metallic materials today. They are induced during manufacturing because of the rapid local heating and cooling and may cause distortions, cracking and delamination between layers. The magnitude of the residual stresses depends on factors such as manufacturing technology, material, part geometry, scanning strategy, process parameters, preheating temperature and density of the component. In the present work, the magnitudes of residual stresses and distortions in austenitic stainless steel 316L components manufactured by Selective Laser melting have been investigated. Four specimens with rectangular cross-sections where produced with different heights and wall thicknesses. The residual stresses were measured by two different methods, x-ray diffraction and Electronic Speckle Pattern Interferometry (ESPI) incremental hole drilling in order to see how well they correspond to each other. The results showed peaks of high tensile stresses in the building direction in all specimens. The magnitudes of stresses were similar in all four specimens. The largest distortions occurred when the wall thickness was increased, and the height was reduced. It was also shown that the measurements made by x-ray diffraction and ESPI incremental hole drilling were not consistent with each other. The latter showed unrealistically high measurements near the surface.

The diploma thesis is focused on the description and the verification of a relatively young creep age forming method. This method is based on a relaxation of stress and a creep of material, which occur by forming a part in the clamping tool during the artificial precipitation heat treatment at elevated temperature. After removing from the tool, the spring back and the residual stresses in the part are smaller compared to the conventional forming methods. This is mainly reflected in the increased fatigue resistance of the structure. The creep aging is only applicable to the precipitation heat treatable alloys. This thesis is focused on aluminium alloys, which are typical for the aerospace industry. The first part of the thesis describes principles of technology, its use in the aviation and material processes in the aluminium precipitation heat treatable alloys during the creep age forming. In the second part, there is a methodology of the verification of technology on samples made of the aluminium alloys ČSN EN AL-P 7075 and ČSN 424203 (approximate equivalent of ČSN EN AL-P 2024). Furthermore, a forming tool is designed, and experiments are performed according to the proposed methodology. At the end of the thesis, the experiments are evaluated and changes in the spring back of the samples are compared for three different methods of forming: the conventional cold clamping forming, the creep age forming and the creep age forming with an overaging.

La majorité des produits verriers du marché sont issus d’une opération de mise en forme à hautes températures, suivie d’une phase de refroidissement contrôlé afin d’éliminer (verre recuit) ou générer (verre trempé) des contraintes résiduelles. Le comportement mécanique du verre étant fortement thermo-dépendant, le contrôle des températures est un élément déterminant pour le succès du procédé de fabrication. Lors de la simulation numérique, pour ce milieu semi-transparent, les échanges thermiques par conduction et par rayonnement sont à considérer. La résolution de l’ETR (Equation de Transfert Radiatif) est menée dans cette thèse par le biais de la « Méthode P1 » et le « Back Ray Tracing » (BRT). Les deux codes développés ont été validés par l’étude comparative avec les données en températures et en contraintes résiduelles issues de la littérature sur le refroidissement dans l’épaisseur du verre soumis à des conditions variées en convection naturelle et forcée. Une expérimentation qui consiste à refroidir un disque de verre sur un support métallique a été développée dans le but de comparer les températures et contraintes générées par l’expérimentation et par la modélisation issue du couplage thermomécanique avec les deux codes P1 et BRT. De manière plus originale, la méthode BRT a été étendue à des géométries de révolution. Une première approche a consisté à étudier le fluage d’une goutte de verre et à analyser l’influence du choix du modèle de résolution de l’ETR sur les températures et les géométries au cours de la mise en forme. / Most of glass products on the market come from a high-temperature forming operation, followed by a controlled cooling phase to remove (annealed glass) or generate (tempered glass) residual stresses. Since the mechanical behaviour of the glass is highly thermo-dependent, temperature control is a determining factor for the success of the manufacturing process. During numerical simulations, for this semi-transparent medium, heat exchanges by conduction and radiation have to be considered. In this work, the resolution of the ETR (radiative transfer Equation) is carried out using the "P1 method" and the "Back Ray tracing" (BRT). The two developed codes were validated by the comparative study with the temperature and residual stresses data from the literature on cooling in the thickness of the glass subject to various conditions in natural and forced convection. An experimentation which consists in cooling a glass disk on a metal support was developed in order to compare the temperatures and stresses generated by the testing and by the modelling resulting from the thermomechanical coupling with the two codes P1 and BRT. In a more original way, the BRT method was extended to revolving geometries. A first approach was to study the creep of a glass gob and to analyze the influence of the choice of the ETR's resolution model on the temperatures and geometries during the forming.

Ce travail a pour objectif d’évaluer le comportement à l’usure de pièces en CoCrMo utilisé dans l’orthopédie. Le procédé de nanocristallisation superficielle SMAT (Surface Mechanical Attrition Treatment) couplé à un polissage biomédical a été mis en œuvre dans cette étude pour améliorer les propriétés mécaniques, tribocorrosives d’un alliage CoCrMo. Dans un premier temps, une optimisation des paramètres SMAT sur un alliage CoCrMo a été réalisée. Différentes techniques de finition de surface ont ensuite été étudiées afin d’obtenir un état de surface acceptable pour des implants orthopédiques. Des techniques de caractérisation microstructurale ont alors été mises en œuvre sur des échantillons SMATés et polis : microscopie électronique à balayage et transmission (MEB ; MET), diffraction des électrons rétrodiffusés (EBSD), diffraction de kikuchi en transmission (TKD) et diffraction des rayons X (DRX). Les résultats obtenus ont montré que le traitement SMAT peut créer un raffinement des grains en surface de l’alliage CoCrMo avec notamment la présence de nano-grains en extrême surface. Des mesures d’indentation ainsi que des essais par la méthode du trou incrémental ont été effectués. Une augmentation de plus de 30% de la dureté a ainsi été observée après SMAT ainsi que la génération de contraintes résiduelles superficielles de compression. Les propriétés tribocorrosives de l’alliage CoCrMo ont également été étudiées par des essais d’usure par pion disque, scratch tests et des essais électrochimiques avant et après SMAT. / This aims of this work is to evaluate the wear behavior of CoCrMo parts used in orthopedics. The Surface Mechanical Attrition Treatment (SMAT) method coupled with biomedical polishing has been used in this study to improve the mechanical and tribocorrosive properties of a CoCrMo alloy. In a first step, an optimization of the SMAT parameters on a CoCrMo alloy was carried out. Different surface finishing techniques were then studied to obtain an acceptable surface finish for orthopedic implants. Microstructural characterization techniques were then applied on SMATed and polished samples: scanning and transmission electron microscopy (SEM, MET), backscattered electron diffraction (EBSD), transmission kikuchi diffraction (TKD), and ray diffraction X (XRD). The results obtained showed that the SMAT treatment can create a refinement of the surface grains of the CoCrMo alloy with the presence of nano-grains in the extreme surface. Indentation measurements as well as incremental hole tests were performed. An increase of more than 30% of the hardness was observed after SMAT as well as the generation of residual surface compressive stresses. The tribocorrosive properties of the CoCrMo alloy were also studied by disk wear tests, scratch tests, and electrochemical tests before and after SMAT.

This dissertation thesis deals with the improvement of computational approaches for prediction of residual stresses in welded joints of welded structures in order to ensure greater compliance of the calculated results with the real conditions of welding and heat treatment. The improvement of computational approaches is based on application of elastic-viscoplastic material models which are able (compared with elastic-plastic material models) to take into account the viscoplastic processes ongoing during welding and heat treatment. This leads to more accurate calculated results which enter into further assessment of limit states and directly decide on the safety and lifetime of welded structures. Performed computational and experimental works, confronted with results published in the world, confirm the influence and benefit of application of elastic-viscoplastic material models in the frame of welding and heat treatment numerical analyses. Therefore elastic-viscoplastic material model is further applied in solution of practical project solved by IAM Brno. Solution of this project, whose aim is the development of repair of dissimilar metal welds (without post-weld heat treatment) in Dukovany and Temelin nuclear power plants using "Weld overlay method", has confirmed that application of elastic-viscoplastic material model leads to more accurate calculated results. For this reason the elastic-viscoplastic computational approach will be included into all future tasks of IAM Brno.

Title: Investigation of titanium alloys using neutron diffraction Author: Gergely Németh Department / Institute: Department of Physics of Materials Supervisor of the master thesis: prof. RNDr. Kristián Mathis, Ph.D., DrSc., Department of Physics of Materials Abstract: Titanium grade 2 was treated by multiple passes of the continuous equal- channel angular pressing technique (CONFORM ECAP) and, after each pass, additionally by rotary swaging. The residual strain field in samples processed by only CONFORM ECAP was studied by neutron diffraction strain scanning. In order to elucidate the microscopic background and calculate the related residual stress field, the local microstructure was thoroughly investigated by various experimental techniques. The microstructure and the deformation behavior of the rotary swaged samples was studied by transmission electron microscopy and by in-situ neutron diffraction during compression. The results of the analyses indicated that microstructural gradients were present in the material as the result of the inhomogeneous deformation during the CONFORM ECAP treatment. These gradients were identified as the main reason of the presence of residual stress fields. The distributions of stress fields calculated based on microstructural parameters were in correlation with simulation...

Additive manufacturing has the power to redefine how we create components. In order to minimize removal of printed material, deformation must be kept a minimum. When deposition rate is increased during directed energy deposition so is the power requirement for melting the feedstock. This increases the residual stresses in the material and leads to more deformation. The deposition rate must be increased without introducing large deformation, if additive manufacturing is ever to be economical in many engineering fields. This study aims to explore if pulsing the laser can decrease deformation using a design of experiments approach. Other types of defects and microstructural changes are also evaluated. A total of 17 sets of parameters were used varying laser power, pulse frequency and the time fraction when the laser was powered on. The amount of powder added to a substrate was constant and the build geometry as similar as possible for all tests. Ultimately no conclusion could be drawn regarding pulsing parameters effect on deformation. It was found pulsing the laser lowered the powder efficiency drastically, which may have had a bigger effect on the experimental set up than anticipated. In a similar manner, no relation between pulsing parameters, defects and microstructure could be observed. / Additiv tillverkning ger oss möjligheten att tillverka komponenter på ett sätt som tidigare inte har varit möjligt. För att minimera efterföljande svarvning och fräsning av additivt tillverkade delar måste deformationen kontrolleras. När deponeringshastigheten ökar måste även sträckenergin ökas i direktenergideponeringsprocesser. Detta leder till höjda restspänningsnivåer i materialet och medför en större efterföljande deformation. Om additiv tillverkning i framtiden ska ha en chans att mäta sig ekonomiskt med konventionella metoder måste deponeringshastigheten öka för många applikationsområden. Denna studie använder Design of Experiments för att undersöka om en pulserande laser kan utnyttjas för att minska deformationen när metallpulver används som tillsats. Även andra typer av defekter och förändringar i mikrostruktur har utvärderats. Totalt undersöktes 17 olika parameteruppsättningar med varierande lasereffekt, pulsfrekvens och aktiv lasertid. Pulverdeponeringshastigheten hölls konstant mellan försöken och byggeometrierna var så lika som möjligt för alla tester. I slutändan kunde ingen slutsats dras när det gäller hur pulserande parametrar påverkar deformationen. Det visade sig att en pulserande parameter sänker pulvereffektiviteten drastiskt, vilket kan ha haft en större effekt på experimentets uppsättning än förutspått. På liknande sätt kunde inget säkert samband mellan pulserande parametrar, defekter och mikrostruktur observeras.

This master thesis was carried out at Scania CV AB. The focus for this thesis is the prediction of welding distortions that can cause problems in the manufacturing process of Scania's after-treatment system. The after-treatment system is mainly assembled by sheet metal plates of the ferritic stainless steel EN 1.4509. The plates are welded together. When welding, distortions and residual stresses occur, and they also depend on the sequence in the component was welded together. The distortions and residual stresses can cause tolerance related issues and a lower lifetime for the welded components. Experiments are expensive and therefore it is desirable to simulate the welding process, thereby controlling distortions and optimizing welding sequences. To simulate the welding process and predict the welding distortions a thermo-mechanical FE-model was created for two typical welds found on the after-treatment system. The first scenario was two thin plates welded onto each other in an overlap weld joint and the second scenario was a thin plate welded onto a thick plate in a overlap weld joint. After the FE-model was compared to the experiments. An optimization of the welding sequences was also made on a larger component typically found on the after-treatment system. The FE-model can predict the distortion shape with good accuracy for the T-fillet weld, while the model predicted a more symmetric distortion shape on the overlap weld compared to a more asymmetric shape found on the experiments, but the error is still not very large. The Fe-model can also be used to optimize the welding sequence for bigger components on the after-treatment system within a reasonable time span compared to doing the opimization manually in an experiment. / Detta examensarbete gjordes för Scania CV AB. Fokus for detta examensarbete har varit kvarvarande deformationer efter svetsning som kan skapa problem vid tillverkningen av Scanias avgasefterbehandlingssystem. Avgasefterbehandlingssystemet är till mesta dels konstruerat av stålplåtar av det ferritiska rostfria stålet EN 1.4509, plåtarna är svetsade ihop och då uppstår kvarvarande deformationer. När komponenter svetsas samman uppstår deformationer och restspänningar. Dessa deformationer och restspänningar är också beroende på i vilken sekvens komponenterna har svetsats ihop. Deformationerna och restspänningarna kan skapa problem med toleranser och sänka livslängden för komponenterna som sammanfogats. Experiment är kostsamma och därför är det önskvärt att simulera svetsprocessen, och därav kontrollera deformationerna som uppstår och optimera i vilken sekvens som komponenterna ska svetsas ihop. För att simulera svetsprocessen och prediktera de kvarvarande deformationerna efter svetsning så gjordes termo-mekanisk FE-model för två vanliga svetsscenarion för avgasefterbehandlingssystemet. Det ena scenariot är två tunna plåtar som svetsas ihop i en överlappande position och det andra var en tunn plåt som svetsas på en tjockare plåt. Ett experiment gjordes sedan för båda svetstyperna. Efter att svetstyperna hade jämförts med experimentet så gjordes en optimering av svetssekvensen för en större komponent likt komponenter funna på avgasefterbehandlingssystemet. Den termomekaniska FE-modelen kunde prediktera de kvarnvarande deformationerna och deras form med bra noggrannhet jämfört med experimentet med undantag för en deformationsform på de tunna plåtarna som var mer symmetrisk i FE-modellen jämfört med den asymmetriska formen i experimentet. FE-modellen kunde också användas för att optimera svetssekvensen för den större komponenten inom en rimlig tidsrymd.