共一冊，約五萬字，分為： 第一章：緒論 第一節：研究動機與目的。說明本研究之寫作動機，並所欲達成之目的。 第二節：文獻探討。探討有關過度辨正效果，多重充足原因基模，及不同酬賞種類之 文獻，綜合前人研究結果，並檢討結果分歧之原因。 第三節：研究架構與問題。綜合文獻探討結果，擬設研究架構，並列出與研究所欲驗 證之假設如下： 1.多重充足原因基模隨年齡增加發展愈成熟。 2.酬賞對內在興趣之影響視酬賞種類而異。 3.酬賞對內在興趣之影響視酬賞方式而異。 4.酬賞對內在興趣之影響視多重充足原因發展基模而異。 第二章：研究方法 第一節：預試。說明預試所使用之受試樣本，研究工具、實驗程序，以及預試結果。 第二節：正式實驗。說明正式實驗所使用之受試樣本，研究工具、實驗程序，以及實 驗結果之資料處理方式。 第三章：研究結果 第一節：有閱操弄變項之檢驗。 第二節：結果分析。分析所操弄之自變項在依變項各種測量值上，是否有顯著影響。 第三節：討論。 第四章：結論與建議。

一般人經常處在團體的情況□，然而團體中每個人的表現並非每次都能發揮至極限， 社會閒散的意思便是個人在團體中付出的努力比單獨工作時來得小，團體越大每個人 投入的努力程度卻越來越小。本研究的目的是想從不同工作特質上來探討社會閒散的 情形。 本研究以大學生為對象共一二○位，採取實驗室實驗法，探討三個人團體其社會閒散 的行為。所操弄的變項有三：ヾ角色重要性（1 倍、3 倍、5 倍）；ゝ酬賞型態（不 加倍、加倍）；ゞ工作變異性（小、大）。採用的活動是自鐵盤子中挑出特定顏色的 珠子。測量的依變項是受試挑出珠子的數量。資料分析包括三因子變異數分析、t 檢 驗。 研究結果發現： ヾ男女受試在數量上有顯著的差異。一般而言，女性受試挑得比男性受試來得多。 ゝ角色越重要的受試，所挑出的數量越多，不論男女受試皆已達到顯著效果。 ゞ酬賞型態的操弄在本研究中並沒有達顯著效果。 々在工作變異小的情況下，受試挑出的數量在變異大的情況下來得多。

Deal or no deal? Hold ‘em or fold ‘em? Buy, hold or sell? When faced with uncertainty, a wise decision-maker evaluates each option and chooses the one they deem most valuable. Scientists studying decision making processes have spent much theoretical and experimental effort formalizing a framework that captures how decision makers can maximize the amount of subjective value they accrue from such decisions. This thesis tested two hypotheses. The first was that subjective value guides our simplest and most common of motor actions similar to how it guides more deliberative economic decisions. The second was that subjective value is allocated across pre-motor regions of the brain to make our actions more efficient. To accomplish these goals, I adapted a paradigm used by behavioural economists for use in neurophysiological experiments in non-human primates. In our task, monkeys repeatedly make quick, orienting eye movements, known as saccades, to targets, which they learned through experience, had different values. In support of the hypothesis that subjective value influences simple motor actions, the speed with which monkeys responded, known as saccadic reaction time (SRT), and their saccadic choices to valued targets were highly correlated and therefore both acted as a behavioural measures of subjective value. Two complimentary results support the hypothesis that subjective value influences activity in the intermediate layers of the superior colliculus (SCi) – a well-studied brain region important to the planning and execution of saccades - to produce efficient actions. First, when saccades were elicited with microstimulation, we found that the timing and spatial allocation of pre-saccadic activity in the SC was shaped by subjective value. Second, the baseline preparatory activity and transient visual activity of SCi neurons prior to saccade generation was also influenced by subjective value. Our results can be incorporated into existing models of SC functioning that use dynamic neural field theory. I suggest that saccades of higher subjective value will result in higher activation of their associated neural field such that they will be more likely and more quickly selected. In summary, this thesis demonstrates that subjective value influences neural mechanisms, not only for deliberative decision making, but also for the efficient selection of simple motor actions. / Thesis (Ph.D, Neuroscience Studies) -- Queen's University, 2013-06-25 17:18:25.393

Based on existing theories of personality and socio-emotional functioning (e.g. Clark, 2005; Lynch, Hempel & Clark, in press) a new model is proposed and tested. The model hypothesises that (i) temperament (reward and threat sensitivity) and childhood invalidation predict problems with interpersonal functioning, (ii) this effect is mediated by self-regulatory capacity; where self-regulatory capacity comprises self-control (ranging from emotional over-control to emotional under-control) and flexible control and (iii) self-regulatory capacity itself has a quadratic relationship with interpersonal functioning. A UK community sample (n= 512) completed a self-report survey, measuring each of the aforementioned latent variables. Structural equation modelling (SEM) was used to determine the goodness-of-fit of this and variations of this model. SEM identified that a non-mediation model provided the best fit (χ²=49.403, p< 0.001; CFI=0.98; RMSEA=0.056). Good-fit was obtained for a model including flexible control as a partial mediator (χ²=269.06, p< 0.001; CFI=0.956; RMSEA=0.081) and adequate-fit for a model including over-control as a partial mediator (χ²= 91.744, p < 0.001, CFI=0.932; RMSEA= 0.096). Correlation analyses suggested that over-control and under-control correlated positively with interpersonal problems. Results from SEM provided promising initial evidence for the mediating role of self-regulatory capacity, particularly for the flexible control component. Correlation analyses provided support for the non-linear relationship between self-regulatory capacity and interpersonal functioning, whereby extreme over-control or extreme under-control is associated with interpersonal problems. Findings have implications for identifying mechanisms of change for therapeutic approaches to emotion dysregulation and for understanding the over-controlled population, which has previously been overlooked.

The effects of a monetary reward and self-monitoring on reducing interdialytic weight gain (IWG) were compared for 6 hemodialysis patients in an outpatient setting. A single-subject experimental design (A-B-BC-B-BC) was used to examine each variable individually and in combination, with alternating phases to control for possible sequencing effects. Monetary reward (50 cents - $3) was administered in a titrated manner according to standardized criteria, ranging from 3 % and 4% of patients' dry weight on weekdays and weekends, respectively, to 3.5% and 4.5% for weekdays and weekends. Self-monitoring involved recording daily fluid and diet intake. Results indicated that by the end of the treatment program, the 6 participants averaged a 14% reduction in weekday IWG and a 15.45% reduction in weekend IWG; however, due to significant variability, it cannot be concluded that the reductions are treatment effects. Four out of 6 participants reduced their average IWG for both weekends and weekdays by .75 kg (1.65 lb.). The average weekend reduction for these 4 participants was .85 kg (1.87 lbs.) while the average weekday reduction was .65 kg (1.43 lb.). All 6 participants showed reductions in weekday IWG that averaged .53 kg (1.17 lb.). However, only 2 participants demonstrated IWG reductions that could be attributable to either of the 2 treatment variables. The standardized dry weight criterion for assessing fluid adherence may have posed excessively stringent demands on participants, as only 1 of the 6 participants actually met the criterion. Future research should address the role of nonspecific treatment factors, as well as patient characteristics and responsivity to particular treatment components in an effort to identify those factors responsible for behavior change in this population.

Tidigare studier har visat att majoriteten av anställda inom svenska organisationer har ett bristande i engagemang till sitt arbete, vilket kan bero på att feedback och belöning kommer alltför långt efter slutförandet av en uppgift. Forskning har även visat att yttre belöningar till följd av en prestation endast fungerar väl på kort sikt, men att det trots det finns företag som använder sig av yttre belöning för att motivera sina medarbetare. Ett exempel är säljorganisationer. Gamification är en relativt ny framväxande idé som innebär applicering av spelelement i icke spelliknande kontexter, för att skapa inre motivation och ett ökat engagemang hos människor. Syftet med studien är att analysera i vilket utsträckning direkt feedback och de karaktäristiska spelmekanikerna poäng, emblem, topplistor, levels, relationer, utmaningar, begränsningar och resa förekommer inom säljorganisationer, som inte uttalat använder sig av gamifierade system, för att skapa motiverade och engagerade medarbetare. Metoden bygger på en kvalitativ och abduktiv ansats, där empirin har samlats in genom semistrukturerade intervjuer med sex chefer från olika säljorganisationer. Resultatet visar att flertalet av spelmekanikerna används inom samtliga säljorganisationer, och att det inte finns någon spelmekanik som inte förekommer inom någon av organisationerna. Vidare förekommer poäng, relationer, utmaningar och begränsningar inom samtliga sex organisationer och levels är den spelmekanik som förekommer minst. Vissa skillnader gällande spelmekanikernas användande uppenbarades, även om syftet med användandet för samtliga organisationer är att skapa motivation och öka engagemanget hos säljarna. Feedback förekommer frekvent inom samtliga organisationer. Däremot uppenbarades en viss problematik i samband med direkt feedback, då den tenderar att komma en tid efter att en uppgift har slutförts, bland annat på grund av geografisk utspridning. / Previous studies have shown that the majority of employees within Swedish organisations lack commitment to their work, which can be due to the fact that feedback and reward is received late after the completion of a task. Research has also proved that extrinsic rewards as a result of a performance only work well in the short term, but nevertheless there are companies that still use extrinsic rewards to motivate their employees. Sales organisations are one example of that. Gamification is a relatively new emerging idea that involves application of game elements in a non-game context to create intrinsic motivation and to increase engagement among the people. The purpose of this study is to analyse to which extent direct feedback and the characteristic game mechanics points, badges, leaderboards, levels, relationship, challenges, restrictions and journey occur within sales organisations that do not claim to use gamified systems in order to motivate and engage employees. The method used is based on a qualitative and abductive approach where empirical data were collected through semi-structured interviews with six managers from different sales organisations. The result show that the majority of the game mechanics is used in all sales organisations and that there is none of the game mechanics that do not occur in any of the organisations. Moreover, points, relations, challenges and restrictions occur in all six organisations and levels is the game mechanic that occur the least. Some differences in the using of the game mechanics were revealed, although the purpose of the use in all of the organisations is to motivate and increase the engagement of the sellers. Feedback occurs frequently in all organisations. However, certain problems occurred associated with direct feedback as it tends to be received a while after the task has been completed due to geographic diffusion, among other things.

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Stress is the most common reason for sick leave in Sweden today. The physical demands are less in today’s work life, but the psychological demands have increased, resulting in increased stress related ill-health. The aim with the current study was to gain an understanding in how individuals that has been or are on stress-related sick leave experience the social support received at the work place and where they experienced that the primary responsibility for the sick leave was. Nine participants from self-help groups for stress was interviewed with a qualitative hermeneutic approach. The interviews were transcribed and analyzed with van Manen’s (1990) “selective or highlighting approach”. The analysis was grounded in four research questions; causes of stress-related sick leave, perceived responsibility for the sick leave, social support, and facilitating factors for returning to work. The result showed that the participants experienced lack of rewards, high demands, low control, lack of social support, insufficient recovery and denial of symptoms of stress. The participants often blamed themselves and took on the primary responsibility. The self-help groups acted as substitute for the lacking social support as well as increased the self-awareness and motivation among the participants.

This investigation was designed to determine relative effects of monetary reward and knowledge of results on complex-choice reaction time tasks. Subjects were twenty-five male and thirty-two female undergraduate students. Apparatus consisted of nine stimulus lights and eight response keys. Subjects were required to add the number of lights presented, subtract the sum from a constant, and press the correctly numbered response key. Reward subjects received twenty-five cents for responses faster than a predetermined criterion, and twenty-five cents was deducted for slower responses. Knowledge of results subjects were told their reaction times after each trial. Results indicated (1) no significant differences between any conditions, (2) a significant overall practice effect (.01 level), and (3) that males were significantly faster than females (.01 level).