Previous work has attempted to fit reward-driven attentional selection as being exogenous (stimulus-driven) or endogenous (goal-driven). However, recent work suggests that reward’s effects on attention depend on the type of stimulus feature that the motivational information is imparted during learning (incentive salience). If true, then reward should not be limited to solely impacting early perceptual or late categorization processes attention. The current study used event-related potentials (ERPs) to test the idea that reward’s effects on attention depend on the process that the reward information is embedded – early perceptual or late categorization. Results demonstrated reward-driven effects on perceptual representation when value information was conveyed by cues in a spatial cuing task, but did not find any value-driven effects when value was introduced later in processing in target-defined features in a target detection task. The current work suggests that reward can be rapidly acquired and sustained throughout a task, recruiting mechanisms of both exogenous and endogenous attention.

Alterations in the dopaminergic system have been implicated in both animal and human obesity. However, to date, a comprehensive model on the nature and functional relevance of this relationship is missing. In particular, human data remain equivocal in that seemingly inconsistent reports exist of positive, negative or even no relationships between dopamine D2/D3 receptor availability in the striatum and measures of obesity. Further, data on receptor availability have been commonly interpreted as reflecting receptor density, despite the possibility of an alternative interpretation, namely alterations in the basal levels of endogenous dopaminergic tone. Here, we provide a unifying framework that is able to explain the seemingly contradictory findings and offer an alternative and novel perspective on existing data. In particular, we suggest (i) a quadratic relationship between alterations in the dopaminergic system and degree of obesity, and (ii) that the observed alterations are driven by shifts in the balance between general dopaminergic tone and phasic dopaminergic signalling. The proposed model consistently integrates human data on molecular and behavioural characteristics of overweight and obesity. Further, the model provides a mechanistic framework accounting not only for the consistent observation of altered (food) reward–responsivity but also for the differences in reinforcement learning, decision-making behaviour and cognitive performance associated with measures of obesity.

This diploma thesis aims to compare the Czech and Russian regulations of the costs of civil proceedings, to identify and compare the differences in favor of this or another legislation. The thesis is divided into three chapters. The first chapter is devoted to the costs of civil proceedings in the Czech courts. First of all, the concept of costs of proceedings and its function is defined. Then the individual types of costs of proceedings are analyzed according to its demonstrative list in § 137 of Act No. 99/1963 Coll., Code of Civil Procedure, as amended: expenses of participants and their representatives, including court fee, lost earnings, interpreting, evidence costs, compensation for value added tax, remuneration for representation and remuneration for the mediator. Subsequently, the principles of payment and reimbursement of costs of proceedings are discussed, taking into account the moderating right of the court and the decision on reimbursement of costs of proceedings. The second chapter focuses on the description of the legal regulation of costs in the Russian Federation. Like the first chapter, it deals with the concepts of costs of proceedings and related legal institutes in Russian law. In particular, it focuses on the description of the court fee, exemption from the court fee,...

Introduction: Une stimulation nociceptive localisée peut produire une analgésie diffuse par un mécanisme endogène inhibiteur de la douleur (MEID). Des stimuli plaisants (e.g. musique) ainsi que le plaisir induit par l’interruption de la douleur peuvent également induire une analgésie. Pour cette raison, il est possible que l’analgésie causée par le plaisir (induite par l’arrêt de la douleur) soit un effet confondant dans le MEID. Objectifs: 1) Examiner la possibilité d’une relation entre le plaisir induit par l’arrêt de la douleur et le MEID et 2) Étudier l’interaction entre le plaisir et la douleur en examinant les activations/désactivations cérébrales pendant une stimulation nociceptive. Méthodologie: Étude 1) Le MEID a été mesuré (N=27) en administrant une chaleur nociceptive (thermode) avant et après le test de l’eau froide. Après une pause de 30 minutes, le test de l’eau froide a été réadministré pour mesurer le niveau de plaisir (0-100) induit par l’arrêt de la douleur (mesuré pendant 4 minutes). Étude 2) Un stimulus nociceptif (gel froid) a été administré (N=26) pendant une session d’IRMf. Résultats: Étude 1) L’arrêt du test de l’eau froide a induit une hypoalgésie avoisinant les 40%. Le MEID et le plaisir induit par l’interruption de la douleur n’étaient pas corrélés. Étude 2) Comparativement au stimulus neutre, le gel froid a induit une activation significative des régions de douleur (e.g. insula, precuneus) et une désactivation significative dans le gyrus frontal orbital moyen. Discussion: La désactivation du gyrus frontal orbital moyen illustre le débalancement de l’homéostasie pendant la stimulation douloureuse, qui est ensuite rétablit par l’augmentation du plaisir, suite à l’interruption de la douleur (effet compensatoire entre la douleur et le plaisir). / Background: A localized painful stimulation can produce diffused analgesia through the inhibitory conditioned pain modulation system (ICPM). Analgesia can also be induced by pleasant stimuli (e.g. music) or by the interruption of a painful stimuli (pleasant pain relief). Because pleasure has analgesic benefits, the effect of pleasant pain relief could be a confounding factor in ICPM. Furthermore, pain offset induces activations in reward regions, though results showing the deactivation of reward regions during pain onset have been inconsistent. Objectives: 1) investigate the possible relationship between pleasant pain relief and ICPM using psychophysical measures and 2) investigate cerebral activations/deactivations during pain onset. This will allow a better comprehension of the pain/reward interaction. Methodology: In study 1, ICPM was measured (N=27) by administering noxious heat (thermode) before and after the cold pressor test (CPT). After a 30 minutes break, the CPT was re-administered to measure pleasant pain relief (0-100) for 4 minutes. In study 2, a modified CPT (gel) was administrated (N=26) during an fMRI session to investigate cerebral activations/deactivations during pain onset. Results: In study 1, interruption of the CPT induced a mean pleasant pain relief of almost 40%. ICPM and pleasant pain relief did not correlate. In study 2, we found significant activations in the insula, the precuneus and the middle frontal gyrus and a significant deactivation in the medial orbital frontal gyrus during pain onset, when compared to the neutral stimulus. Discussion: Deactivation of reward regions illustrates the disruption in homeostasis caused by pain onset, which is later reinstated during pain offset (pleasant pain relief), therefore showing a compensatory effect. This allowed an enhanced comprehension of the opponent process theory.

A growing body of work links psychopathology to changes in hedonic capacity following stressors. This was the first experimental study of the effects of stress on hedonic capacity in an analog generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) sample (a high worry group). Specifically, we utilized an experimental manipulation of stress and a behavioral index of anhedonia to test the hypothesis that individuals with GAD, who are at higher risk for developing depression symptoms, exhibit greater stress-related deficits in hedonic capacity than do nonanxious controls. Further, this study assessed whether stress-induced hedonic deficits predicted future depression. Controls exhibited the expected reward learning pattern in the baseline condition, demonstrating intact hedonic responding, as well as the expected pattern of behavioral anhedonia under stress. Contrary to predictions, worriers demonstrated intact hedonic capacity under stress. The stress effect in worriers was modulated by past depression diagnostic status; whereas worriers with no past depression demonstrated blunted baseline hedonic capacity and heightened hedonic capacity under stress, worriers with past depression demonstrated the normative response pattern. Blunted baseline response bias predicted higher future depression in both groups. We discuss the differential stress effects on behavioral hedonic capacity found as a function of worry, the role of past depression as a moderator of stress effects among worriers, and the need for future work to further explicate the mechanisms that may modulate reward response under stress.

Generation Y är den generation som just nu befinner sig på arbetsmarknaden (Erickson, 2008). Denna generation bär med sig nya krav och behov in på arbetsplatser, bland annat vad gäller motivation och hur de för sig kring andra personer (Venuta, 2014; Treuren & Anderson, 2010). Dessa nya karaktärsdrag har därför satt andra krav på arbetsmarknaden. Motivationen kan drivas av både icke-monetära och monetära belöningar. Tidigare forskning (Herzberg, 1968; Maslow, 1954) har visat på att icke-monetära, som till exempel bekräftelse och uppmärksamhet motiverar individer men även att monetära belöningar i form av provision ökar produktiviteten och motivationen (Aguinis, 2013; Rynes et al. 2004). Generation Ys karaktärsdrag stämmer överens med det icke-monetära belöningssystemet, därför ansåg studiens författare att det vore intressant att studera om det fanns motivation även inom det monetära belöningssystemet för denna generation. Syftet med studien har därför varit att skapa en djupare förståelse för hur generation Y förhåller sig till provisionsbaserat belöningssystem. För att smalna av studien har författarna valt att studera en bransch där provisionsbaserat belöningssystem är dominerande, nämligen fastighetsmäklarbranschen. Den valda teoretiska referensramen har byggt på två motivationsteorier, nämligen Herzbergs tvåfaktorsteori och Maslows behovspyramid (Herzberg, 1968; Maslow, 1954). Upptill detta har forskning kring generation Y används samt om belöningssystem. De belöningssystem som berörts är icke-monetära belöningar samt monetära, där även provisionsbaserat belöningssystem ingår. Studien är en intervjustudie med kvalitativ metod. För att samla in den empiri som krävs för att bemöta frågeställningen så har semistrukturerade intervjuer utförts med tio fastighetsmäklare. Respondenterna valdes ut från fyra av Sveriges mest etablerade fastighetsmäklarfirmor, dock från olika kontor runt om i Västsverige. Insamlade data har sedan analyserats med hjälp av den teoretiska referensramen för att komma fram till ett resultat. Resultatet av studien visar att fastighetsmäklare ur generation Y absolut motiveras av provisionsbaserat belöningssystem, men att pengarna inte är allt. Det som väger tyngst, och motiverar mest, är istället de relationer som fastighetsmäklarna har med sina kollegor och kunder. Vilket stämmer överens med den tidigare forskning som finns kring generation Y. / Generation Y is the generation that is currently in the labor market (Erickson, 2008). This generation brings new demands and needs in workplaces, including in terms of motivation and how they relate to other people (Venuta, 2014; Treuren & Anderson, 2010). These new characteristics have therefore set other demands in the labor market. The motivation can be driven by both non-monetary and monetary rewards. Previous research (Herzberg, 1968; Maslow, 1954) has shown that non-monetary, such as confirmation and attention, motivate individuals but also that monetary rewards in the form of commissions increase productivity and motivation (Aguinis, 2013; Rynes et al. 2004). Generation Y's character traits are consistent with the non-monetary reward system, therefore, the study's authors considered it would be interesting to study whether there was motivation even within the monetary reward system for this generation. The purpose of the study has therefore been to create a deeper understanding of how generation Y relates to commission-based reward system. To narrow the study, the authors have chosen to study an industry where commission-based reward systems are dominant, the real estate industry. The chosen theoretical frame of reference has been based on two motivational theories, namely Herzberg's two-factor theory and Maslow's pyramid of needs (Herzberg, 1968; Maslow, 1954). Up to this, theories about generation Y have been used as well as theories about reward systems. The reward systems involved are monetary and non-monetary rewards, which also include commission-based reward systems. The study is an interview study with a qualitative method. In order to collect the empirical data needed to deal with the question, semi-structured interviews have been conducted with ten real estate agents. The respondents were selected from Sweden's most established real estate firms, though from various offices around western Sweden. The collected data has then been analyzed using the theoretical frame of reference to gain a result. The results of the study show that generation Y real estate agents are motivated by commission-based reward system, but that money is not everything. What matters most, and motivates most, is instead the relationships that real estate agents have with their colleagues and clients. Which corresponds to the previous research on generation Y.

Background: Anecdotal accounts of stereotypes and/or generalisations about perceived generational differences within the workplace have become commonplace. Generational cohort theories are often used to identify generational cohorts of employees that are argued to be different, including having differing expectations, needs, preferences and even values. In addressing and/or accommodating such individual differences organisations are increasingly adopting strategies and interventions that take such generational differences amongst employees into account (Costanza & Finkelstein, 2015). Addressing generational differences within the workplace has particularly become popular in the design and implementation of total reward or remuneration and recognition strategies, policies and practices. Understanding generational and/or demographic characteristics, specifically differences, that create distinct cohorts allow organisations to design reward and recognition packages that create distinctly unique value for their employees. Offering tailored or more focused reward strategies and practices, designed with individual differences in mind are believed to enhance attraction, employee engagement and retention and so allow an organisation to bolster its competitive advantage and contribute to sustained organisational success (Snelgar, Renard, & Venter, 2013). In support of this notion, empirical studies are showing promising results for targeted reward strategies and practices. Rationale for the Research Study Effective talent management, i.e. attracting, engaging and retaining sought-after highly skilled employees is critical for the success of any organisation. However, organisations are increasingly experiencing challenges in recruiting, motivating and retaining scarce human capital, colloquially referred to as talent (Barkhuizen, 2014). Failure on the part of organisations to understand and adapt to differences in the workforce may result in them not being able to attract the talent required; keep employees motivated and engaged; and experience unintended employee turnover which is associated with notable direct and indirect costs for them (Westerman & Yamamura, 2007). Organisations, therefore, are constantly searching for new and innovative approaches to more effectively attract, retain and engage employees (Snelgar et al., 2013). There is a growing body of research (Haynes, 2011; Snelgar, Renard, & Venter, 2013) that has shown that identifying distinct reward and recognition preferences amongst cohorts of employees and targeting reward and recognition strategies accordingly, is showing promising potential in this regard. When designing and implementing targeted approaches to reward and recognition, employee cohorts are most often identified using generational cohort theory, i.e. using various established guidelines to group employees into generational cohorts that are believed to be distinctly different to one another, while those within these groups being more similar than not. Results obtained from studies using these various employee cohorts as a framework have been used to inform the design of targeted reward and recognition practices and policies. Generational cohort theory is, however, mostly grounded on a set of historical events that took place in the United States of America (USA). Despite this, the American-based framework used to identify individuals belonging to various generations has been adopted globally, both within organisations and even used in research studies published in peer-reviewed literature. However, several authors have criticised the indiscriminate use of a popular American-based generational framework, i.e. focusing on events affecting Americans arguing that this has resulted in a somewhat narrow or even skewed view generational cohorts. These authors have gone as far as to argue that the American-based generational framework may not be appropriate or ineffective outside of the USA at all (Close, 2015). Following this reasoning, they have called for alternative frameworks that create distinct generational cohorts relevant in contexts outside of America, i.e. based on different events and criteria more applicable to those contexts. Aim of the research study The aim of the present study was to investigate the reward preferences of a broad range of employees in an effort to assess whether the popular generational model of Strauss and Howe (1991) is relevant and/or as effective in a non-American context, as well as to possibly find support for alternative perspectives or approaches to identify distinct generational cohorts in organisations that may be more appropriate and/or effective when designing reward offerings for different cohorts of employees. Given time and cost constraints, South Africa was chosen to investigate this claim given that it is a developing economy (vs the USA being a developed economy) and has a different set of notable events that have shaped its history to that which is applicable to the USA. Given the aim of the present study, an exploratory research design was considered most appropriate to investigate generational cohort theory within a non-American context as a framework to identify employee groups/cohorts that have distinctly different total reward preferences. For the purposes of the present study, it was decided that a quantitative approach would be followed as it is most useful to draw conclusions or inferences related to the total reward preferences of employee groups/cohorts. The present study followed a non–probability or convenience sampling approach with a realised sample of 169 respondents. The majority of respondents were Coloured and were further female, with majority of attaining a qualification post matric. Main results and findings A one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) revealed no statistically significant difference between the generational groups based on the popular generational model of Strauss and Howe (1991), nor for a proposed generational cohort framework that was designed for the purposes of the present study and which was based on notable South African historical events. Following a data-driven exploratory approach, cluster analysis, on the other hand, yielded three distinct generational cohorts based on their perceived reward preferences for typical total rewards elements. Significant differences in the total reward preferences of respondents born after 1994 and those before 1994. Choice-based modelling (choice-based conjoint analysis) revealed that most respondents considered financial rewards as being the two most preferred total reward elements for them, including remuneration (guaranteed pay) followed by benefits and then non-financial rewards (work-life balance being the most preferred non-financial reward preference). Theoretical and Practical Implications Numerous research studies have made use of the popular American-based generational model to identify the reward preferences of cohort groups, without taking into account context-specific variables. There is further a dearth of empirical research that has been conducted to investigate generational cohort theory specifically, while none were found that were conducted in developing economies, such as South Africa. The present study address this gap in current literature. The use of choice-based modelling or choice-based conjoint analysis, furthermore, makes a methodological contribution given that this method is seldom found in total reward preference studies. This method was shown to identify total reward preferences that could not be determined using a field-survey or questionnaire. Choice-based modelling is different to typical survey approaches in that it is better able to replicate human decision making, i.e. assessing relative importance of attributes and levels based on combinations of choices and related sacrifices that humans deal with when making a choice-decision. In terms of the practical contribution of the present study, the results provide insights for organisations that may be incorporated when designing differentiated total reward strategies to accommodate and/or address the needs of the different generational groups.

The purpose of this thesis is to explore and examine how gameplay experiences differ in the gacha game Genshin Impact (miHoYo, 2020). In particular, there is a focus on the economic systems of the game along with the general play experience. People can have different perspectives as veteran players or newbie players, so the objective is to find differences in how these players approach the reward systems of the game, and how their relationship to these systems is affected. This is done by utilizing a mixed-method approach, using aspects of both formal analysis and autoethnography. It is further explored how players interacted with these economic systems, with a focus on the harder to acquire, premium currency of Primogems. The characteristics of reward systems in Genshin Impact, particularly the content unlocking mechanisms of the game, are discussed further, as they have implications for both types of players. The paper goes deeper into discussing dark design patterns, which are prevalent in the experiences of both players. As Genshin Impact is a large game with a variety of content, this is further explored and related to relevant theory to better facilitate a discussion about possible design implications. By comparing and analyzing the experiences of both players in regards to relevant theory, it was concluded that at a certain point the game no longer concerns itself with rewarding players adequately. This was further compounded by the game offering less and less goals to work towards for players, as they simply run out of meaningful content to do. Players are distracted from this lack of a goal by expertly crafted dark design patterns, introduced to the players in such a way that they have all but no choice, but to engage in these patterns willingly.

This study examines how effort-reward reciprocity at work impacts the job satisfaction of the self-employed. The self-employed regularly show higher job satisfaction than the wage-employed. Theories point toward effort-reward reciprocity, the balance between what one gives and what one receives at work, as a predictor of higher job satisfaction. No earlier research has explored the mediating effect of effort-reward reciprocity in order to explain the higher job satisfaction for the self-employed. This model was explored among employed individuals in the Nordic Region (N = 3,916). Job satisfaction was measured via an index of nine items. The effort-reward reciprocity measure followed the theoretical model of effort-reward imbalance. A causal mediation analysis showed that effort-reward reciprocity fully mediated the impact that employment form had on job satisfaction. The results suggest that this effect is not part of some elusive feature of self-employment. Further research should expand on the model by introducing rewards more attuned to self-employment, such as autonomy and flexibility.

Motivation är en central del för organisationer vad gäller att skapa och bibehålla en engagerad personal att sträva mot de mål som sätts upp. Belöningar kan användas för att öka motivationen hos medarbetare. Till följd av Covid-19 pandemin har många organisationer behövt anpassa sina arbetssätt där distansarbete bedrivs i större omfattning vilket kan ha en påverkan på de anställdas motivation. Det finns även tankar kring att belöningar inte används i samma utsträckning i offentligt finansierade organisationer och därmed är det intressant att undersöka då det verkar kunna ha en effekt på motivationen. Syftet med den här studien var att undersöka hur motivationen i en offentlig organisation har påverkats under rådande pandemi till följd av fenomenen digitalisering och distansarbete. Vi ville även se på sambandet mellan motivation och belöning i en offentlig organisation. För att kunna genomföra studien valde vi att tillämpa en kvalitativ fallstudie. Vi genomförde semistrukturerade intervjuer för att samla in relevant material till vårt forskningsområde. Valet av respondenter baserades på att individerna hade påverkats av pandemin med distansarbete som följd. Utifrån studiens resultat framkommer det att de viktigaste motivationsfaktorerna är samhörighet, utvecklingsmöjligheter och erkännande från omgivningen. Vi kan se att distansarbetet har påverkat organisationen både positivt och negativt. Vissa av medarbetarna upplever att deras motivation har minskat och andra upplever inga skillnad eller en ökning. De negativa effekterna som upplevs till följd av distansarbetet består främst av sämre kommunikation, samhörighet och struktur. Det framkommer att belöningar är viktigt men det finns ingen förväntan i organisationen att få ta del av ekonomisk ersättning, det är dock inget som verkar ha en negativ effekt. De slutsatser som framkommit från vår studie är att motivationen påverkas på ett eller annat sätt till följd av digitalisering och distansarbete där individernas tidigare erfarenheter och preferenser gällande arbetssätt spelar in. Vidare kan vi även dra en slutsats kring att belöning har en påverkan på offentligt anställdas motivation, främst i form av feedback och erkännande. / Motivation is a central part of organizations in terms of creating and maintaining a committed staff to strive for the goals that are set. Rewards can be used to increase employee motivation. As a result of the Covid-19 pandemic, many organizations have had to adapt their working methods where remote work is conducted to a greater extent, which could have an impact on employee motivation. There are also thoughts that rewards are not used to the same extent in publicly funded organizations and thus it is interesting to investigateas it seems to influence motivation. The purpose of this study was to investigate how the motivation in a public organization has been affected during the prevailing pandemic as a result of the phenomenon of digitalization and remote work. We also wanted to look atthe connection between motivation and reward in a public organization. In order to be able to carry out the study, we chose to apply a qualitative case study. We conducted semi-structured interviews to gather relevant material for our research area. The choice of respondents was based on the fact that the individuals had been affected by the pandemic with remote work as a result. Based on the results of the study, it appears that the most important motivation factors are belonging, opportunities for development and recognition from the surroundings. We can see that the distance work has affected theorganization both positively and negatively. Some of the employees feel that their motivation has decreased, and others experience no difference or an increase. The negative effects experienced as a result of remote work mainly consist of poorer communication, belonging and structure. It turns out that rewards are important, but there is no expectation in the organization to receive financial compensation other than salary, but it doesn’t seem to have a negative effect. The conclusions that emerged from our study are that motivationis affected in one way or another as a result of digitalization and remote work where the individuals' previous experiences and preferences regarding working methods come into play. Furthermore, we can also draw a conclusion that reward has an impact on public employees' motivation, primarily in the form of feedback and recognition.