Cognitive theories of depression, including Beck’s Cognitive Theory, suggest that depressed individuals hold negative schemas about themselves and their environment. These negative schemas may influence the extent to which depressed individuals process positivity. Reward Devaluation Theory posits that depressed individuals avoid and devalue positivity. This suggests that depressed individuals may be less likely to hold positive schemas, or may be more likely to associate positivity with negativity. Previous meta-analytic reviews suggest that this is potentially the case, but have not assessed for self-referential stimuli. Self-referential encoding and recall tasks assess for self-schemas and may give further insight into how depressed individuals process self-referential positivity. The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to examine the extent to which depressed individuals differ in processing self-referential positivity and negativity. Results indicate that depressed individuals recalled fewer positive words than negative words, with severely depressed individuals also endorsing fewer positive words than negative words, in line with Reward Devaluation Theory. In addition, depressed individuals endorsed fewer positive words and more negative words as self-referential than other-referential. In comparison to nondepressed individuals, depressed individuals demonstrated endorsed and recalled fewer positive words and more negative words. These findings suggest that treatments targeting both reduced positive biases and increased negative biases may be most beneficial for depressed individuals, particularly those exhibiting more severe symptoms of depression

This paper examines the representation of sex in the game The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt in terms of quest design, narrative, and sex scenes. Examining this topic is relevant to identifying misogynistic tropes in games and finding out where the portrayal of sex might be lacking or even harmful, for designers as well as consumers. The research was conducted through the close reading method, with two researchers playing and analyzing the game. The paper has found a tendency to use sex as a reward for the player. This is done through the quest design, and the framing of the sex scenes, which use and objectify women’s bodies to create an erotic spectacle for the male player. All this constructs a power fantasy for said player through identification with the protagonist, which is encouraged by the framing of cut scenes and the game medium

No description available.

Background: The prevalence of adolescent obesity has increased drastically in the last few decades, spurring research examining causes and consequences of this chronic health condition. Neuroimaging techniques are being used to determine possible neural correlates of obesity that could help inform research in this field. However, the research among adolescents is not as abundant and findings so far are contradictory. This study sought to examine the association of the shape and volume of subcortical brain structures involved in reward processing with weight status in adolescent females. Additionally, this study sought to determine if the shape and volume of these structures were correlated with the Power of Food Scale (PFS), a self-report measure of food reward sensitivity. Method: The shape and volume of the nucleus accumbens (NAc) and amygdala were examined in 89 adolescent females ranging from normal weight to obese. MR scans were acquired using a high-resolution T1-weighted (MPRAGE) sequence. Shape was estimated using Large Deformation Diffeomorphic Metric Mapping. Seemingly unrelated regression models (SUM) were used for both brain structures with shape and volume as outcome variables and zBMI as the predictor variable. Pairwise correlation coefficients were determined for PFS score and both regions of interest (ROI). Results: SUM results revealed that zBMI was significantly associated with the shape of the left amygdala (β = -1.1, p<.021, 95% confidence interval [CI] = -2.02, -.16). When we controlled for age on the relationship between zBMI and left amygdala shape, we found the following partial correlation: r = -.24, p = .03. The PFS was found to have weak correlations with the volume and shape of the right NAc that approached significance (r = .20, p = .06; r = .19, p = .08, respectively). Conclusions: Our study suggests that there is an association between higher zBMI and aberrations in the shape of the left amygdala. We did not find associations between zBMI and the shape of our other reward-related ROIs, nor did we find any associations with zBMI and ROI volume. These findings suggest that variation in the shape of certain ROIs implicated in reward processing is associated with weight status in adolescents. Our findings also suggest that the shape and volume of the NAc could be a neural correlate of the PFS warranting further investigation. These findings may elucidate an important neural link between weight status and reward processing that could help to inform obesity research in adolescents.

Cannabis is widely consumed by humans for pharmacological effects that are mediated by THC, though there is little evidence that THC is a primary reinforcer in non-human animal models. We hypothesized that THC may have potent reinforcement enhancing effects, comparable to other drugs (e.g., nicotine and caffeine) which are also widely consumed by humans, but difficult to establish as primary reinforcers in non-humans. In three experiments with male and female rats saccharin (SACC) or a visual stimulus (VS) served as reinforcers for operant behavior. We explored several pharmacological parameters of THC on responding for SACC or VS, including THC dose, intervals between THC injections and testing, and intervals between test sessions. THC acts as a reinforcement enhancer for both SACC and a VS across a range of doses and intervals. Daily THC injections systematically reduced behavior, possibly due to accumulation of THC bioavailability.

The purpose of this study was to examine drug counselors' experience of using reward as a work method and how a more lenient view on substance use can help foster the treatment process and reduce stigma surrounding drug use. The study is based on semi-structured interviews with 4 drug counselors from a municipality in Sweden. The study used a qualitative approach, and the results were analyzed using an abductive approach. The data was analyzed using Becker's theory on labeling and Goffman's theory on stigmatization. The results show that drug-counselors experience the use of reward in drug treatment as an effective tool in creating a positive association to both treatment and the counselors themselves. Reward also helps fulfill an important function in promoting a non-judgmental approach which the counselors then can build upon. The results also show the complexity regarding having a more tolerant outlook on drug consumption, but also that criminalization of drug use is seen as a contributing factor in the stigmatization of youth with substance use disorder. / Syftet med studien var att undersöka behandlares upplevelse av att använda belöning som arbetsmetod samt hur en mer tolerant syn på droganvändningsproblematik kan främja behandlingsprocessen och minska stigmatisering kring droganvändning. Datainsamlingsmetoden är semistrukturerade kvalitativa intervjuer med fyra missbruksbehandlare inom öppenvården. Studien har en kvalitativ ansats och resultatet analyserades utifrån ett abduktivt förhållningssätt. Data analyserades utifrån Beckers stämplingsteori samt Goffmans teori om stigma. Resultat visar att behandlarna upplever att belöning som arbetsmetod skapar en positiv association till såväl behandlarna som behandlingen i sig. Belöningen fyller även viktig funktion i att främja det icke dömande förhållningssättet som behandlarna arbetar utifrån. Vidare visar resultatet av studien att en tolerant syn på droganvändningsproblematik är komplext utifrån rådande lagstiftningen som kriminaliserar allt eget bruk av narkotika, samtidig som kriminaliseringen ses som en bidragande orsak till att ungdomar med en droganvändningsproblematik stigmatiseras.

Vi kommer i denna uppsats presentera olika teoretiska utgångspunkter för att analysera hurtillgänglighet påverkar möjligheterna till balans mellan arbetsliv och övrigt liv. Våra primärateoretiska utgångspunkter är Work-life balance, Gränslöst arbete och Tillgänglighet. Vi harfokuserat och utformat vår studie efter vårt urval av respondenter; bemanningsansvarigachefer. För att ge läsaren en insikt i hur arbetssituationen ser ut i helhet har vi valt attdessutom använda oss av Krav-kontroll-stöd-modellen samt Effort-reward. Det empiriskamaterialet till uppsatsen samlades in via åtta intervjuer där samtliga respondenter arbetarinom olika branscher med fysisk arbetskraft. Med fysisk arbetskraft syftar vi till att deanställda endast kan utföra arbetet på plats och att möjligheten för distansarbete inte finns.Uppsatsens slutsatser är att tillgängligheten ställer höga krav i arbetet och det bidrar till enrisk för obalans och gränsdragningskonflikt mellan arbete och övrigt liv. Flera aspekter ochkomponenter spelar in i upplevelsen av att arbetet stundvis tar mer energi än det ger och vikommer att närmare presentera det i slutet av uppsatsen.

The objectives of this study were: (1) to evaluate consumer acceptance of cheeses varying in fat and sodium levels, (2) to determine if sensitivity to reward and body mass index has an effect on product liking based on fat or salt content, (3) to evaluate the use of FaceReader technology during consumer evaluation and, (4) to determine if consumer’s self-selected, conscious emotions matched with the expressed, subconscious emotions acquired by FaceReader. Consumer acceptance testing (n=108) was conducted on two medium cheddar cheeses with varying fat levels and two low-moisture part-skim mozzarella cheeses varying in sodium levels. Attributes were measured using a 9-point hedonic scale. In order to measure reward sensitivity, participants completed the BIS/BAS questionnaire and the SPSRQ prior to consumer acceptance testing. SIMS sensory software was used for data collection. The complete consumption experience was video recorded (n=83). A choose-all-that-apply format was used so participants could indicate all emotional states before and after consumption. A total of 332 pairs of videos (83 subjects, four samples, before and after consumption) were used for FaceReader analysis. Regular cheddar cheese scored significantly higher than the reduced fat cheddar cheese for mean overall liking, flavor, texture, creaminess, saltiness and aftertaste. The higher sodium mozzarella scored significantly higher than the lower sodium mozzarella for mean flavor, saltiness and aftertaste (p FaceReader Results indicated: Neutral was the most accurately matched self-selected emotion (100%) before and after consumption, followed by happy (82% and 63% respectively). FaceReader was unable to correctly match surprised/angry before consumption and angry/sad after consumption. FaceReader acquired 420 and 495 additional non-self-selected emotions before and after consumption, respectively. Neutral and angry were most commonly expressed when not self-selected. Disgusted and scared were rarely expressed when not self-selected. FaceReader was not as successful matching the self-selected emotions after consumption. Surprised and happy were commonly missed both before and after consumption. Disgusted was missed primarily after consumption. "Happy" is self-selected and expressed more times for regular cheddar than the reduced fat cheddar. The mean overall liking score was also significantly higher for the regular cheddar than reduced fat cheddar. Similar results were found with mozzarella. Although low fat and low sodium cheeses represent a healthier option, consumer acceptance indicated that the higher fat and higher sodium samples scored higher; changes in flavor and texture need to be made in order to produce a more liked product. There is a complex relationship between product liking, body mass index, gender and sensitivity to reward but further research needs to be conducted to investigate how the variables interact. FaceReader technology did match some of the self-selected emotions identified by the subject. However, one question remains: which emotions, self-selected/conscious emotions or subconscious/expressed emotions, are a better predictor of liking?

Social responsibility and ethics have been shown to have a positive influence on consumer behavior, however the vast majority of related research has measured this relationship indirectly through scenario analysis of hypothetical firms rather than consumers' perceptions of real-world firms. This dissertation focused on a real-world application of the theory. Each hypothesis that specified a positive relationship was supported. These results show that Brand Social Responsibility Image not only positively influences Brand Loyalty, but also influences the perception of both Product Quality and Service Quality. Concurrently, it was found that both Product and Service Quality Image influenced Brand Loyalty. When controlling for the effect of other variables, some of the relationships proved to be weaker than expected. There were three hypotheses that tested the moderating effect of Inclination to Reward Brand Social Responsibility Image. The moderating influence of Inclination to Reward Brand Social Responsibility Image (RSRI) on the relationships between Brand Social Responsibility Image (BSRI) and Product Quality Image and between BSRI and Brand Loyalty were greatest for low levels of BSRI. Consumers rated Product Quality Image and Brand Loyalty lowest under conditions of L-BSRI and H-RSRI. Alternatively, when BSRI was high, both high and low treatments of RSRI resulted in similar sample means for both Product Quality Image and Brand Loyalty (i.e., minimal moderating effect). Inclination to Reward Brand Social Responsibility Image (RSRI) appeared to moderate the relationship between Brand Social Responsibility Image (BSRI) and Service Quality Image at high levels of BSRI. In other words, the perception of service quality was relatively high when both BSRI and RSRI were viewed as being high. Under conditions of H-BSRI and L-RSRI, Service Quality Image was substantially lower. Under conditions of L-BSRI, there was very little difference between L- and H-RSRI. / Ph. D.

Four groups of 12 rats each received constant medium size rewards of nine 45 mg Noyes pellets prior to nonrewarded (N) and nonrewarded punishment (P) (0.25 rna shock of 0.1 sec duration) trials and either large (L) size rewards of sixteen 45 mg pellets· or small (S) size rewards of two 45 mg pellets following N and P trials in a runway. Following acquisition each of the four groups was randomly subdivided into either continuous N or continuous P extinction conditions. This resulted in a two X two X two completely randomized factorial design with the variables and its levels being L and S Post N reward magnitudes, Lands' Post P reward magnitudes, and N and P extinction conditions. In acquisition, reward magnitude did not significantly affect performance. In extinction, large Post N reward magnitude produced larger resistance to extinction (Rn) than small Post N reward magnitude in the run and in the goal sections of the runway. The Post P reward magnitude did not affect performance in either acquisition or extinction. Higher Rn in the goal speed was reflected by the groups that received large Post N reward magnitude in the N extinction condition relative to the P extinction condition. The results of the present study were basically consistent with Capaldi's sequential theory with regard to Post N reward magnitude but not to Post P reward magnitude.