This thesis examines the cultural and social relationships cultivated by ethnically diverse auxiliary soldiers in the western Roman empire. These soldiers were enrolled in the Roman auxilia, military units that drew primarily on the non-Roman subjects of the empire for their recruits in numbers that equaled the legionaries. I argue that auxiliary soldiers could and did maintain large families, and demonstrate, from epigraphic data collected and presented in my dissertation, how foreign ethnic and religious identities were variously integrated into Roman military culture by both individual auxiliaries and the Roman state. The history of the auxilia in Germany from the time of Augustus and in Britain from the time of Claudius is discussed, with extensive reference to epigraphic material provided in appendices to this work. Analysis of military diplomas from across the Roman empire demonstrates a significant phenomenon of auxiliary family creation that helps to contextualize the diploma data from Germania and Britannia. Research on further epigraphic evidence from Germania and Britannia demonstrates a marked diversity in religious dedications by auxiliary soldiers and further evidence for auxiliary families. From a discussion of the history of the concept of ‘Romanization’ and other theoretical models that can be applied to the study of the auxilia, the continued usefulness of the evolving concept of ‘Romanization’ to our understanding of auxiliary cultural integration is assessed. Auxiliary service is shown to have provided many non-Roman ethnic groups avenues of cultural and legal inclusion that each soldier, surely in his own way, could exploit.

Les protectores diuini lateris Augusti, soldats de haut rang attestés dans l’armée romaine entre le IIIe siècle et le VIe siècle, ont été considérés tour à tour par les historiens comme des gardes du corps impériaux, des officiers d’état-major, ou les successeurs des centurions. Mais ces interprétations soulèvent bien des contradictions que cette étude d’histoire militaire et sociale, appuyée sur un corpus prosopographique, vise à résoudre. Les évolutions du recrutement, des carrières et des fonctions des protectores sont révélatrices des recompositions du commandement de l’armée romaine tardive. L’analyse ouvre également une fenêtre sur l’environnement social et culturel de ces soldats privilégiés, amenés à fréquenter tant les champs de bataille que la cour impériale. Enfin, en plaçant au centre de la réflexion la relation de ces soldats avec l’empereur, à la fois chef de l’armée et garant de l’ordre social et symbolique du monde de l’Antiquité tardive, on comprend comment les protectores s’inscrivaient, aux yeux des Romains, au sein d’un ordre terrestre des dignités reflétant la hiérarchie céleste. / The protectores diuini lateris Augusti, high-ranking soldiers attested in the Roman army from the 3rd c. to the 6th c. AD, have been alternately defined by historians as imperial bodyguards, staff officers, or centurions under a new name. This study, based on a prosopography, aims to resolve the contradictions raised by these interpretations, from a military and social point of view. The evolutions of these soldiers’ recruitment, careers and functions, reflect deep changes in the command structure of the Late Roman army. The analysis also sheds light on the social and cultural background of these privileged soldiers, who were familiar with both the battlefield and the imperial court. By focusing on their privileged relationship with the emperor, who was at the same time general in chief and responsible for the social and symbolic order of the Late Antique world, we can finally understand how the protectores were part, in the eyes of the Romans, of an earthly order of dignities reflecting the celestial hierarchy.

Cette recherche a pour but d’éclaircir le rôle logistique des lixae dans les armées romaines et l’évolution de celui-ci entre la fin de la période républicaine et de l’Empire tardif. Bien que ceux-ci soient souvent associés aux vivandiers et aux valets d’armée, leur présence dans les armées ne se limite pas à ces deux rôles. Aussi, il sera d’abord question du contexte civil dans les armées romaines en rapport avec les lixae. L’étymologie et l’historiographie des lixae seront ensuite traitées avant d’entreprendre la description et l’analyse de leurs différents rôles d’après les sources anciennes. La dernière partie de cette recherche sera consacrée aux différents rôles des lixae dans les armées romaines et à leur évolution à travers le temps. L’hypothèse avancée dans la recherche est celle d’une spécialisation du rôle marchand des lixae dans les armées entre la période républicaine et la période du haut empire et de l’empire tardif. Enfin, l’ensemble des sources anciennes mentionnant les lixae est regroupé dans deux catalogues en annexe de la recherche. / This research aims to clarify the lixae’s logistic role in the Roman armies and it evolution between the end of the Republican period and the Late Empire. Although the lixae are often associated with sutlers and camp-followers, their presence in the armies is not limited to these two roles. This research will first define the civilian context in the Roman armies in relation with the lixae. The etymology and historiography of the lixae will then be treated prior to the description and analysis of their different roles according to ancient sources. The last part of this research will focus on the changing role of lixae in the Roman armies. The hypothesis advanced in this research is that the merchant role of lixae in the armies becomes more specialized over time. Finally, all the ancient sources mentioning lixae are grouped in two catalogs in the appendix of this research.

Cette thèse de doctorat en archéologie est consacrée à l'étude des "militaria" découvertes dans la péninsule balkanique et issues de contextes datés de l'époque romaine tardive et protobyzantine. La définition des champs de l'enquête permet, dans un premier temps, d'établir un corpus répertoriant 156 sites archéologiques à armes et de proposer l'inventaire des "militaria" dans leurs contextes historiographiques, géographiques et chronologiques. L'analyse typologique replace ensuite ces armes dans leurs contextes de production, de diffusion et d'approvisionnement, d'utilisation, d'entretien et d'abandon. Une telle analyse démontre enfin qu'aucune forme n'est anodine et que l'évolution de celle-ci résulte d'héritage, d'adaptation et d'innovation. / This Phd work in archaeology deals with the study of "militaria", found on the Balkan Peninsula, from late roman and early-byzantine archaeological contexts. At first, the definition of field investigation allows to establish a database indexing 156 archaeological sites with weapons and to take stock of the "militaria" within their historiographical, geographical and chronological contexts. Cluster analysis then puts these weapons in their contexts of manufacture, circulation and supplying, use, maintenance and abandonment. This analysis demonstrates finally that no style is trivial and that the evolution of the latter results of inheritance, borrowing and innovation.

Les guerres civiles des dernières décennies de la République, de 49 à 30 avant J.-C., mettent en avant le savoir faire des élites romaines dans la conduite des opérations militaires, éclairent les limites et précipitent les transformations de l’outil militaire et des pratiques guerrières.À partir des effectifs comptabilisés et des besoins ensuite estimés, il apparaît que le ravitaillement sur le terrain ne constitue qu’un complément occasionnel et conjoncturel à un approvisionnement depuis l’arrière.À l’échelle stratégique, la mobilisation des ressources de l’Empire romain connaît alors une ampleur sans précédent. Aucune province n’est épargnée. Le partage du monde romain entre l’Occident et l’Orient, modifie les schémas habituels de mobilisation des ressources et sollicite des régions récemment intégrées au monde romain dans de nouveaux réseaux logistiques. L’ampleur et la nature des besoins des effectifs engagés vont nécessiter des bases stratégiques étendues et faire du transport maritime un axe essentiel des systèmes logistiques.À l’échelle opérationnelle, les infrastructures indispensables pour supporter le réseau logistique réduisent les choix possibles pour l’établissement des bases arrières. Les armées romaines ne bénéficient visiblement pas de structures déjà constituées à cet effet.Enfin, l’acquisition des fournitures et le financement de la logistique nécessitent des bouleversements fiscaux, parfois accompagnés d’exactions et du pillage des ressources provinciales, en raison de l’absence d’une fiscalité efficace. Ces conflits mettent en lumière la perte de pouvoir du Sénat au profit d’imperatores autonomes et indépendants, jusqu’à la confiscation définitive du pouvoir par l’un d’entre eux. / The civil wars that took place during the last decades of the Roman Republic (49-30 B.C.) reveal the expertise of Roman elites in the art of war, along with its limits, and accelerate the transformations of the military tool and Roman warfare.After the manpower and needs of the Roman armies estimation, living off the land doesn’t seem to have been more than an occasional mean of supply, supplemented by a more effective logistical support from the rear.The resources of the Roman Empire are mobilized at an unprecedented scale, sparing no province, as the split of the Roman world between western and eastern sides transforms the usual patterns of logistical mobilization. Recently conquered provinces are therefore added to newly raised logistical systems in the Eastern Mediterranean. The maritime transportation plays a central role, as the amount of the supplies needed requires large strategic bases across the Mediterranean sea.The infrastructures needed to support the logistical network at an operational scale are rare among the Mediterranean cities and restrain the choice of operational bases. The Roman armies can obviously not rely on previous established military structures.Finally, the Roman tax system has to go through deep changes to face the financial needs of the logistical system, along with plunder and spoil. The Senate loses its power during the civil wars to the benefit of independent imperatores, until Octavian’s final rise to supreme power.

À partir du règne de Constantin Ier, la défense de l’Empire fut mise en œuvre par un corps de généraux qui récupérèrent les anciens pouvoirs militaires des préfets du prétoire : les magistri militum. Confrontés à des menaces militaires incessantes (pression barbare aux frontières et épisodes de guerre civile), ces officiers supérieurs furent la plupart du temps épargnés par les purges qui frappaient le personnel de cour, car ils constituaient une assise fondamentale du pouvoir de l’empereur. Au début du Ve siècle ap. J.-C., l’Empire romain unifié fit place à deux partes imperii indépendantes, voire rivales : un Empire byzantin replié sur l’Orient, et une partie occidentale qui tendit à se fragmenter en royaumes barbares. Comment le haut commandement militaire évolua-t-il dans chacune de ces régions ? Ce corps d’officiers a fait l’objet d’une étude prosopographique tenant compte des recherches les plus récentes, en vue de fournir une synthèse qui a été menée selon trois axes principaux : - en termes institutionnels, quelle était la place de ces généraux dans la chaîne de commandement ?- en termes d’histoire militaire, quel fut le rôle de ces généraux dans les transformations que connut l’armée romaine tardive ?- en termes d’histoire sociale, comment cette noblesse militaire, dont une partie avait des origines barbares, se définissait-elle par rapport à la romanité et à la société de cour tardo-antique ? / From the reign of Constantine the Great onward, the defence of the Empire was the responsibility of a group of generals who were trusted with the previous military responsabilities of the pretorian prefects : the magistri militum. Facing restless threats (barbarian pressure on the frontiers and episodes of civil war), these high officers were most of the time kept away from the regular revolutions that struck the court : they were one of the base of the imperial authority. At the beginning of the fifth century, the unified roman Empire had been replaced by two independent, sometimes even rival partes imperii : a byzantine Empire, limited to the East, and a western part which eventually collapsed to form barbarian kingdoms. How did the high military command evolve in each of these parts ?A prosopographical study, taking into account the most up-to-date research, has been made on this group of officiers, in order to provide a synthesis developing three main axis :- from an institutional point of view, what was the place of these generals in the chain of command ?- from a military point of view, which role did this generals play in the transformations that affected the Late roman army ?- from a social point of view, how did this military nobility, which included people with barbarian origins, defined herself with regard to romanity and the Late Antique court society ?

The work will focus mainly on the collection of available written and archaeological data on Roman fortifications and other fortification elements in the Western Desert in Egypt. The data will be organized with the help of a database program, in which will be recorded all available information about the desert fortifications dating from the end of the 3rd century to the beginning of the 5th century AD. Thanks to the creation of this database, it will be possible to compare individual fortifications in terms of construction technology, layout, position and orientation. The potential of the work itself is therefore in the collection, comparison, and evaluation of available information. At the same time, the database will be connected to a geographic information system (GIS), which will first record the exact location of individual fortifications and other elements in the Western Desert and secondly a map of caravan routes passing through the area. As part of the evaluation of the mutual positions of fortifications and other fortification elements and caravan routes, it will also be possible to interpret localities in the context of the main roads passing through the area of the Western Desert. Key words: Roman fortifications, Roman army, Egypt, Western desert, oases, caravan routes

The work presents the Egyptian Western Desert, in its oases and caravan roads during Roman rule (1st -5th century AD). It focuses mainly on the collection of available written and archaeological data on Roman fortifications and puts it into context with other general information about the Western Desert. The interest is focused on the period 3rd -5th century AD, when the oases were fortified. The individual fortifications and fortification elements are described and set in the context of the whole oasis and events during Roman rule. Furthermore, the issue concerning the designation of these elements as fortification elements is clarified and they are compared not only among themselves, but also with other similar structures in Egyptian territory. At the same time, the work describes caravan roads connecting oases with each other to the Nile valley and the Mediterranean coast; outlines the relationship of fortification elements to these roads. The work thus creates a comprehensive picture of the Western Desert during Roman rule. Key words: Roman fortifications, Roman army, Egypt, Western desert, oases, caravan routes.

13 Abstract The present thesis aims to answer questions regarding function of many Early Roman fortifications investigated in past decades in the region of Northern Negev, i.e. in the valley of Nahal Beersheva between modern towns of Arad and Beersheva. In past, various interpretations were provided, often conflicting with each other and therefore author sought to look at this topic from different point of view, using GIS based tools to explore spatial relationships between the fortifications and settlements in terms of intervisibility (for military signaling and control) and relation to road-system. Moreover, Early Roman Judaea was unstable region with high prevalence of banditry and thus assumption is that military responded to these threats. The results of viewshed analysis (intervisiblity) and least-cost path (reconstruction of road system) can roughly divide the region in question to the zones. In the first zone, most of the fortifications are intervisible and also exercise control of settlements and roads; while in the second zone forts cannot communicate using signals but are located on important roads providing water, lodging and security to travelers. It leads to conclusion that these forts served as stations of detached military units concerned with policing and administration (in both zones) and...

Lors de la période de guerres civiles (49-31 a.C.) qui marqua la fin de la République, les armées, guidées par des imperatores rivaux, jouèrent un rôle central sur la scène politique romaine. Notre étude s’est portée sur l’encadrement des armées dans cette période. Comme dans toute armée, l’obéissance, la discipline voire le dévouement des troupes étaient assurés par des cadres militaires que l’on pourrait qualifier d’officiers, préfets, tribuns militaires, questeurs et légats. On a créé une base de données recensant l’ensemble des conduites individuelles de ces cadres des armées tardo-républicaines. On s’est livré d’abord à une analyse de la position institutionnelle de ces personnages, de leurs fonctions et de la chaîne de commandement dans laquelle ils s’inséraient. On a ensuite examiné les compétences et la formation de ces personnages, qui ne connurent pas de professionnalisation et n’étaient pas des techniciens. Enfin, le rôle politique de ces officiers qui étaient des partisans politiques des imperatores, a fait l’objet d’un examen d’ensemble. / During the Civil Wars which marked the end of the Republican Period in Rome, armies, led by rival imperatores, were important actors of the Roman political scene. This study is about the military cadres during this period. As in any army, obedience, discipline and loyalty were based on the action of military cadres, who can be considered as officers, such as prefects, military tribunes, quaestors and legates. I have created a database, grouping the whole individual actions of these military cadres in late-republican armies. First, I have made an analysis of the institutional positions of these officers, I have studied their functions, and the command chain they were part of. Then, I have studied the competences and the military formation of these individuals, who were not professionals nor technicians. Finally, the political role of these officers, who were kinsmen of the great imperatores, is analysed.