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An emission model for the particle-in-cell methodMudiganti, Jagadish C. Unknown Date (has links) (PDF)
Darmstadt, Techn. University, Diss., 2006.
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Charge Transport Properties of Metal / Metal-Phthalocyanine / n-Si Structures / Ladungstransporteigenschaften von Metall / Metall-Phthalocyanine / n-Si StrukturenHussain, Afzal 20 December 2010 (has links) (PDF)
The field of hybrid electronics of molecules and traditional semiconductors is deemed to be a realistic route towards possible use of molecular electronics. Such hybrid electronics finds its potential technological applications in nuclear detectors, near-infrared detectors, organic thin film transistors and gas sensors. Specifically Metal / organic / n-Silicon structures in this regard are mostly reported to have two regimes of charge transport at lower and higher applied voltages in such two terminal devices. The fact is mostly attributed to the change in conduction mechanism while moving from lower to higher applied voltages. These reports describe interactions between the semiconductors and molecules in terms of both transport and electrostatics but finding the exact potential distribution between the two components still require numerical calculations. The challenge in this regard is to give the exact relations and the transport models, towards practical quantification of charge transport properties of metal / organic / inorganic semiconductor devices. Some of the most exiting questions in this regard are; whether the existing models are sufficient to describe the device performances of the hybrid devices or some new models are needed? What type of charge carriers are responsible for conduction at lower and higher applied voltages? What is the source of such charge carriers in the sandwiched organic layer between the metal and inorganic semiconductors? How the transition applied voltage for the change in conduction mechanism is determined? What is the role of dopants in the organic layer semiconductors? What are the possible explanations for observed temperature effects in such devices?
In present work the charge transport properties of metal / metal-phthalocyanine / n-Si structures with low (ND = 4×1014 cm-3), medium (ND = 1×1016 cm-3) and high (ND = 2×1019 cm-3) doped n-Si as injecting electrode and the effect of air exposure of the vacuum evaporated metal-phthalocyanine film in these structures is investigated. The results obtained through temperature dependent electrical characterizations of the structures suggest that in terms of dominant conduction mechanism in these devices Schottky-type conduction mechanism dominates the charge transport in low-bias region of these devices up to 0.8 V, 0.302 V and 0.15 V in case of low, medium and high doped n-Silicon devices. For higher voltages, in each case of devices, the space-charge-limited conduction, controlled by exponential trap distribution, is found to dominate the
charge transport properties of the devices. The interface density of states at the CuPc / n-Si interface of the devices are found to be lower in case of lower work function difference at the CuPc / n-Si interface of the devices. The results also suggest that the work function difference at the CuPc / n-Si interface of these devices causes charge transfer at the interface and these phenomena results in formation of interface dipole. The width of the Schottky depletion region at the CuPc / n-Si interface of these devices is found to be higher with higher work function difference at the interface. The investigation of charge transport properties of Al / ZnPc / medium n-Si and Au / ZnPc / medium n-Si devices suggest that the Schottky depletion region formed at the ZnPc / n-Si interface of these devices determines the charge transport in the low-bias region of both the devices. Therefore, the Schottky-type (injection limited) and the space-charge-limited (bulk limited) conduction are observed in the low and the high bias regions of these devices, respectively. The determined width of the Schottky depletion region at the ZnPc / n-Si interface of these devices is found to be similar for both the devices, therefore, the higher work function difference at the metal / ZnPc interface of the devices has no influence on the Schottky depletion region formed at the ZnPc / n-Si interface of the devices. The similar diode ideality factor, barrier height and the width of the Schottky depletion region, determined for both of these devices, demonstrates that these device characteristics originate from ZnPc / n-Si interface of these devices. Therefore, the work function difference at the metal / ZnPc interface of these devices has no noticeable influence on the device properties originating from ZnPc / n-Si interface in these devices. The investigation of charge transport properties of Al / CuPc / low n-Si devices with and without air exposure of the CuPc film, before depositing metal contact demonstrate that Schottky-type conduction mechanism dominates the charge transport in these devices up to bias of 0.45 V in case devices with the air exposure, and up to 0.8 V in case devices without the air exposure. This decrease in the threshold voltage, for the change in conduction mechanism in the devices, is attributed to wider Schottky depletion width determined at the CuPc / n-Si interface of the devices without the air exposure of CuPc film. For higher voltage the space-charge-limited conduction controlled by exponential trap distribution, is found to dominate the charge transport properties of the devices without the air exposure of CuPc, and in case of devices with the air exposure of CuPc film, the SCLC is controlled by single dominating trap level probably introduced by oxygen impurities.
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Charge Transport Properties of Metal / Metal-Phthalocyanine / n-Si StructuresHussain, Afzal 16 December 2010 (has links)
The field of hybrid electronics of molecules and traditional semiconductors is deemed to be a realistic route towards possible use of molecular electronics. Such hybrid electronics finds its potential technological applications in nuclear detectors, near-infrared detectors, organic thin film transistors and gas sensors. Specifically Metal / organic / n-Silicon structures in this regard are mostly reported to have two regimes of charge transport at lower and higher applied voltages in such two terminal devices. The fact is mostly attributed to the change in conduction mechanism while moving from lower to higher applied voltages. These reports describe interactions between the semiconductors and molecules in terms of both transport and electrostatics but finding the exact potential distribution between the two components still require numerical calculations. The challenge in this regard is to give the exact relations and the transport models, towards practical quantification of charge transport properties of metal / organic / inorganic semiconductor devices. Some of the most exiting questions in this regard are; whether the existing models are sufficient to describe the device performances of the hybrid devices or some new models are needed? What type of charge carriers are responsible for conduction at lower and higher applied voltages? What is the source of such charge carriers in the sandwiched organic layer between the metal and inorganic semiconductors? How the transition applied voltage for the change in conduction mechanism is determined? What is the role of dopants in the organic layer semiconductors? What are the possible explanations for observed temperature effects in such devices?
In present work the charge transport properties of metal / metal-phthalocyanine / n-Si structures with low (ND = 4×1014 cm-3), medium (ND = 1×1016 cm-3) and high (ND = 2×1019 cm-3) doped n-Si as injecting electrode and the effect of air exposure of the vacuum evaporated metal-phthalocyanine film in these structures is investigated. The results obtained through temperature dependent electrical characterizations of the structures suggest that in terms of dominant conduction mechanism in these devices Schottky-type conduction mechanism dominates the charge transport in low-bias region of these devices up to 0.8 V, 0.302 V and 0.15 V in case of low, medium and high doped n-Silicon devices. For higher voltages, in each case of devices, the space-charge-limited conduction, controlled by exponential trap distribution, is found to dominate the
charge transport properties of the devices. The interface density of states at the CuPc / n-Si interface of the devices are found to be lower in case of lower work function difference at the CuPc / n-Si interface of the devices. The results also suggest that the work function difference at the CuPc / n-Si interface of these devices causes charge transfer at the interface and these phenomena results in formation of interface dipole. The width of the Schottky depletion region at the CuPc / n-Si interface of these devices is found to be higher with higher work function difference at the interface. The investigation of charge transport properties of Al / ZnPc / medium n-Si and Au / ZnPc / medium n-Si devices suggest that the Schottky depletion region formed at the ZnPc / n-Si interface of these devices determines the charge transport in the low-bias region of both the devices. Therefore, the Schottky-type (injection limited) and the space-charge-limited (bulk limited) conduction are observed in the low and the high bias regions of these devices, respectively. The determined width of the Schottky depletion region at the ZnPc / n-Si interface of these devices is found to be similar for both the devices, therefore, the higher work function difference at the metal / ZnPc interface of the devices has no influence on the Schottky depletion region formed at the ZnPc / n-Si interface of the devices. The similar diode ideality factor, barrier height and the width of the Schottky depletion region, determined for both of these devices, demonstrates that these device characteristics originate from ZnPc / n-Si interface of these devices. Therefore, the work function difference at the metal / ZnPc interface of these devices has no noticeable influence on the device properties originating from ZnPc / n-Si interface in these devices. The investigation of charge transport properties of Al / CuPc / low n-Si devices with and without air exposure of the CuPc film, before depositing metal contact demonstrate that Schottky-type conduction mechanism dominates the charge transport in these devices up to bias of 0.45 V in case devices with the air exposure, and up to 0.8 V in case devices without the air exposure. This decrease in the threshold voltage, for the change in conduction mechanism in the devices, is attributed to wider Schottky depletion width determined at the CuPc / n-Si interface of the devices without the air exposure of CuPc film. For higher voltage the space-charge-limited conduction controlled by exponential trap distribution, is found to dominate the charge transport properties of the devices without the air exposure of CuPc, and in case of devices with the air exposure of CuPc film, the SCLC is controlled by single dominating trap level probably introduced by oxygen impurities.:1 INTRODUCTION 3
1.1 Organic / Inorganic Semiconductor Interfaces 5
1.2 Organic / Metal Interfaces 6
1.3 Organic Material / Semiconductor Interfaces 6
1.4 Interface Dipoles at Organic / Inorganic Interfaces 7
1.5 Objectives of the Study 9
1.6 Research Methodology 10
1.7 References 12
2 BASIC CONCEPTS OF ORGANIC ELECTRONICS 16
2.1 Localized and Delocalized Orbital in Organic Semiconductors 16
2.2 Operating principle of some basic organic / inorganic devices 19
2.3 Electronic Structure of an Organic Solid 20
2.4 Validity Limits of band model and the tunneling model 21
2.5 Dark Electric Conduction 23
2.6 Injection of Carriers from Electrodes 24
2.7 References 26
3 MATERIALS AND DEVICE FABRICATION 27
3.1 Assembly of the hybrid organic / inorganic structures 27
3.2 The Vacuum Systems for Device Fabrication 27
3.3 The n-Si substrates 29
3.4 The Organic semiconductors; CuPc and ZnPc 30
3.5 Sample Fabrication Procedures 32
3.5.1 Experimental Details of Samples Prepared at PCRET labs 32
3.5.2 Experimental details of samples Prepared at TU Chemnitz labs 33
3.6 References 34
4 METHODS FOR DATA ANALYSIS 35
4.1 The Dominant Conduction Mechanisms in the Devices 35
4.1.1 Schottky-type Conduction 35
4.1.1.1 The Standard Characterization Technique 38
4.1.1.2 The R. J. Bennett Technique 39
4.1.1.3 The Cheung and Cheung Technique 42
4.1.1.4 The H. Norde Technique 42
4.1.2 Space Charge Limited Conduction (SCLC) 43
4.1.3 The MIM Models to Determine Dominant Conduction Mechanism 44
4.2 Interface State Energy Distribution 46
4.3 References 48
5 CHARGE TRANSPORT PROPERTIES OF Al / CuPc / n-Si DEVICES IN DARK 50
5.1 Charge Transport Properties of Al / CuPc / low-doped n-Si Devices 51
5.1.1 Interface State Energy Distribution 65
5.2 Charge Transport Properties of Al / CuPc / medium-doped n-Si Devices 67
5.3 Charge Transport Properties of Al / CuPc / High-doped n-Si Devices 75
5.3.1 Charge Transport Properties of Al / CuPc / High-doped n-Si Devices as Metal-Insulator-Metal Structures 82
5.4 Summary 85
5.5 Final Remarks 87
5.6 References 88
6 INFLUENCE OF TOP METAL CONTACT ON CHARGE TRANSPORT PROPERTIES META / ZnPc / n-Si DEVICES IN DARK 89
6.1 Charge Transport Properties of Metal / ZnPc / Medium-doped n-Si Devices 89
6.2 Interface State Energy Distribution 99
6.3 Summary 100
6.4 Final Remarks 101
6.5 References 103
7 INFLUENCE AIR EXPOSURE ON THE CHARGE TRANSPORT PROPERTIES OF Al / CuPc / n-Si DEVICES 104
7.1 Charge Transport Properties of Al / CuPc / low n-Si Devices With (or) without air exposure of CuPc film 104
7.2 Summary 115
7.3 Final Remarks 116
7.4 References 117
8 CONCLUSIONS 118
8.1 Scope of Future Work 120
Index of Figures 121
Curriculum Vitae and List of Publications 125
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Charge transport and energy levels in organic semiconductors / Ladungstransport und Energieniveaus in organischen HalbleiternWidmer, Johannes 25 November 2014 (has links) (PDF)
Organic semiconductors are a new key technology for large-area and flexible thin-film electronics. They are deposited as thin films (sub-nanometer to micrometer) on large-area substrates. The technologically most advanced applications are organic light emitting diodes (OLEDs) and organic photovoltaics (OPV). For the improvement of performance and efficiency, correct modeling of the electronic processes in the devices is essential. Reliable characterization and validation of the electronic properties of the materials is simultaneously required for the successful optimization of devices. Furthermore, understanding the relations between material structures and their key characteristics opens the path for innovative material and device design.
In this thesis, two material characterization methods are developed, respectively refined and applied: a novel technique for measuring the charge carrier mobility μ and a way to determine the ionization energy IE or the electron affinity EA of an organic semiconductor.
For the mobility measurements, a new evaluation approach for space-charge limited current (SCLC) measurements in single carrier devices is developed. It is based on a layer thickness variation of the material under investigation. In the \"potential mapping\" (POEM) approach, the voltage as a function of the device thickness V(d) at a given current density is shown to coincide with the spatial distribution of the electric potential V(x) in the thickest device. On this basis, the mobility is directly obtained as function of the electric field F and the charge carrier density n. The evaluation is model-free, i.e. a model for μ(F, n) to fit the measurement data is not required, and the measurement is independent of a possible injection barrier or potential drop at non-optimal contacts. The obtained μ(F, n) function describes the effective average mobility of free and trapped charge carriers. This approach realistically describes charge transport in energetically disordered materials, where a clear differentiation between trapped and free charges is impossible or arbitrary.
The measurement of IE and EA is performed by characterizing solar cells at varying temperature T. In suitably designed devices based on a bulk heterojunction (BHJ), the open-circuit voltage Voc is a linear function of T with negative slope in the whole measured range down to 180K. The extrapolation to temperature zero V0 = Voc(T → 0K) is confirmed to equal the effective gap Egeff, i.e. the difference between the EA of the acceptor and the IE of the donor. The successive variation of different components of the devices and testing their influence on V0 verifies the relation V0 = Egeff. On this basis, the IE or EA of a material can be determined in a BHJ with a material where the complementary value is known. The measurement is applied to a number of material combinations, confirming, refining, and complementing previously reported values from ultraviolet photo electron spectroscopy (UPS) and inverse photo electron spectroscopy (IPES).
These measurements are applied to small molecule organic semiconductors, including mixed layers. In blends of zinc-phthalocyanine (ZnPc) and C60, the hole mobility is found to be thermally and field activated, as well as increasing with charge density. Varying the mixing ratio, the hole mobility is found to increase with increasing ZnPc content, while the effective gap stays unchanged. A number of further materials and material blends are characterized with respect to hole and electron mobility and the effective gap, including highly diluted donor blends, which have been little investigated before. In all materials, a pronounced field activation of the mobility is observed. The results enable an improved detailed description of the working principle of organic solar cells and support the future design of highly efficient and optimized devices. / Organische Halbleiter sind eine neue Schlüsseltechnologie für großflächige und flexible Dünnschichtelektronik. Sie werden als dünne Materialschichten (Sub-Nanometer bis Mikrometer) auf großflächige Substrate aufgebracht. Die technologisch am weitesten fortgeschrittenen Anwendungen sind organische Leuchtdioden (OLEDs) und organische Photovoltaik (OPV). Zur weiteren Steigerung von Leistungsfähigkeit und Effizienz ist die genaue Modellierung elektronischer Prozesse in den Bauteilen von grundlegender Bedeutung. Für die erfolgreiche Optimierung von Bauteilen ist eine zuverlässige Charakterisierung und Validierung der elektronischen Materialeigenschaften gleichermaßen erforderlich. Außerdem eröffnet das Verständnis der Zusammenhänge zwischen Materialstruktur und -eigenschaften einen Weg für innovative Material- und Bauteilentwicklung.
Im Rahmen dieser Dissertation werden zwei Methoden für die Materialcharakterisierung entwickelt, verfeinert und angewandt: eine neuartige Methode zur Messung der Ladungsträgerbeweglichkeit μ und eine Möglichkeit zur Bestimmung der Ionisierungsenergie IE oder der Elektronenaffinität EA eines organischen Halbleiters.
Für die Beweglichkeitsmessungen wird eine neue Auswertungsmethode für raumladungsbegrenzte Ströme (SCLC) in unipolaren Bauteilen entwickelt. Sie basiert auf einer Schichtdickenvariation des zu charakterisierenden Materials. In einem Ansatz zur räumlichen Abbildung des elektrischen Potentials (\"potential mapping\", POEM) wird gezeigt, dass das elektrische Potential als Funktion der Schichtdicke V(d) bei einer gegebenen Stromdichte dem räumlichen Verlauf des elektrischen Potentials V(x) im dicksten Bauteil entspricht. Daraus kann die Beweglichkeit als Funktion des elektrischen Felds F und der Ladungsträgerdichte n berechnet werden. Die Auswertung ist modellfrei, d.h. ein Modell zum Angleichen der Messdaten ist für die Berechnung von μ(F, n) nicht erforderlich. Die Messung ist außerdem unabhängig von einer möglichen Injektionsbarriere oder einer Potentialstufe an nicht-idealen Kontakten. Die gemessene Funktion μ(F, n) beschreibt die effektive durchschnittliche Beweglichkeit aller freien und in Fallenzuständen gefangenen Ladungsträger. Dieser Zugang beschreibt den Ladungstransport in energetisch ungeordneten Materialien realistisch, wo eine klare Unterscheidung zwischen freien und Fallenzuständen nicht möglich oder willkürlich ist.
Die Messung von IE und EA wird mithilfe temperaturabhängiger Messungen an Solarzellen durchgeführt. In geeigneten Bauteilen mit einem Mischschicht-Heteroübergang (\"bulk heterojunction\" BHJ) ist die Leerlaufspannung Voc im gesamten Messbereich oberhalb 180K eine linear fallende Funktion der Temperatur T. Es kann bestätigt werden, dass die Extrapolation zum Temperaturnullpunkt V0 = Voc(T → 0K) mit der effektiven Energielücke Egeff , d.h. der Differenz zwischen EA des Akzeptor-Materials und IE des Donator-Materials, übereinstimmt. Die systematische schrittweise Variation einzelner Bestandteile der Solarzellen und die Überprüfung des Einflusses auf V0 bestätigen die Beziehung V0 = Egeff. Damit kann die IE oder EA eines Materials bestimmt werden, indem man es in einem BHJ mit einem Material kombiniert, dessen komplementärer Wert bekannt ist. Messungen per Ultraviolett-Photoelektronenspektroskopie (UPS) und inverser Photoelektronenspektroskopie (IPES) werden damit bestätigt, präzisiert und ergänzt.
Die beiden entwickelten Messmethoden werden auf organische Halbleiter aus kleinen Molekülen einschließlich Mischschichten angewandt. In Mischschichten aus Zink-Phthalocyanin (ZnPc) und C60 wird eine Löcherbeweglichkeit gemessen, die sowohl thermisch als auch feld- und ladungsträgerdichteaktiviert ist. Wenn das Mischverhältnis variiert wird, steigt die Löcherbeweglichkeit mit zunehmendem ZnPc-Anteil, während die effektive Energielücke unverändert bleibt. Verschiedene weitere Materialien und Materialmischungen werden hinsichtlich Löcher- und Elektronenbeweglichkeit sowie ihrer Energielücke charakterisiert, einschließlich bisher wenig untersuchter hochverdünnter Donator-Systeme. In allen Materialien wird eine deutliche Feldaktivierung der Beweglichkeit beobachtet. Die Ergebnisse ermöglichen eine verbesserte Beschreibung der detaillierten Funktionsweise organischer Solarzellen und unterstützen die künftige Entwicklung hocheffizienter und optimierter Bauteile.
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Charge transport and energy levels in organic semiconductorsWidmer, Johannes 02 October 2014 (has links)
Organic semiconductors are a new key technology for large-area and flexible thin-film electronics. They are deposited as thin films (sub-nanometer to micrometer) on large-area substrates. The technologically most advanced applications are organic light emitting diodes (OLEDs) and organic photovoltaics (OPV). For the improvement of performance and efficiency, correct modeling of the electronic processes in the devices is essential. Reliable characterization and validation of the electronic properties of the materials is simultaneously required for the successful optimization of devices. Furthermore, understanding the relations between material structures and their key characteristics opens the path for innovative material and device design.
In this thesis, two material characterization methods are developed, respectively refined and applied: a novel technique for measuring the charge carrier mobility μ and a way to determine the ionization energy IE or the electron affinity EA of an organic semiconductor.
For the mobility measurements, a new evaluation approach for space-charge limited current (SCLC) measurements in single carrier devices is developed. It is based on a layer thickness variation of the material under investigation. In the \"potential mapping\" (POEM) approach, the voltage as a function of the device thickness V(d) at a given current density is shown to coincide with the spatial distribution of the electric potential V(x) in the thickest device. On this basis, the mobility is directly obtained as function of the electric field F and the charge carrier density n. The evaluation is model-free, i.e. a model for μ(F, n) to fit the measurement data is not required, and the measurement is independent of a possible injection barrier or potential drop at non-optimal contacts. The obtained μ(F, n) function describes the effective average mobility of free and trapped charge carriers. This approach realistically describes charge transport in energetically disordered materials, where a clear differentiation between trapped and free charges is impossible or arbitrary.
The measurement of IE and EA is performed by characterizing solar cells at varying temperature T. In suitably designed devices based on a bulk heterojunction (BHJ), the open-circuit voltage Voc is a linear function of T with negative slope in the whole measured range down to 180K. The extrapolation to temperature zero V0 = Voc(T → 0K) is confirmed to equal the effective gap Egeff, i.e. the difference between the EA of the acceptor and the IE of the donor. The successive variation of different components of the devices and testing their influence on V0 verifies the relation V0 = Egeff. On this basis, the IE or EA of a material can be determined in a BHJ with a material where the complementary value is known. The measurement is applied to a number of material combinations, confirming, refining, and complementing previously reported values from ultraviolet photo electron spectroscopy (UPS) and inverse photo electron spectroscopy (IPES).
These measurements are applied to small molecule organic semiconductors, including mixed layers. In blends of zinc-phthalocyanine (ZnPc) and C60, the hole mobility is found to be thermally and field activated, as well as increasing with charge density. Varying the mixing ratio, the hole mobility is found to increase with increasing ZnPc content, while the effective gap stays unchanged. A number of further materials and material blends are characterized with respect to hole and electron mobility and the effective gap, including highly diluted donor blends, which have been little investigated before. In all materials, a pronounced field activation of the mobility is observed. The results enable an improved detailed description of the working principle of organic solar cells and support the future design of highly efficient and optimized devices.:1. Introduction
2. Organic semiconductors and devices
2.1. Organic semiconductors
2.1.1. Conjugated π system
2.1.2. Small molecules and polymers
2.1.3. Disorder in amorphous materials
2.1.4. Polarons
2.1.5. Polaron hopping
2.1.6. Fermi-Dirac distribution and Fermi level
2.1.7. Quasi-Fermi levels
2.1.8. Trap states
2.1.9. Doping
2.1.10. Excitons
2.2. Interfaces and blend layers
2.2.1. Interface dipoles
2.2.2. Energy level bending
2.2.3. Injection from metal into semiconductor, and extraction
2.2.4. Excitons at interfaces
2.3. Charge transport and recombination in organic semiconductors
2.3.1. Drift transport
2.3.2. Charge carrier mobility
2.3.3. Thermally activated transport
2.3.4. Diffusion transport
2.3.5. Drift-diffusion transport
2.3.6. Space-charge limited current
2.3.7. Recombination
2.4. Mobility measurement
2.4.1. SCLC and TCLC
2.4.2. Time of flight
2.4.3. Organic field effect transistors
2.4.4. CELIV
2.5. Organic solar cells
2.5.1. Exciton diffusion towards the interface
2.5.2. Dissociation of CT states
2.5.3. CT recombination
2.5.4. Flat and bulk heterojunction
2.5.5. Transport layers
2.5.6. Thin film optics
2.5.7. Current-voltage characteristics and equivalent circuit
2.5.8. Solar cell efficiency
2.5.9. Limits of efficiency
2.5.10. Correct solar cell characterization
2.5.11. The \"O-Factor\"
3. Materials and experimental methods
3.1. Materials
3.2. Device fabrication and layout
3.2.1. Layer deposition
3.2.2. Encapsulation
3.2.3. Homogeneity of layer thickness on a wafer
3.2.4. Device layout
3.3. Characterization
3.3.1. Electrical characterization
3.3.2. Sample illumination
3.3.3. Temperature dependent characterization
3.3.4. UPS
4. Simulations
5.1. Design of single carrier devices
5.1.1. General design requirements
5.1.2. Single carrier devices for space-charge limited current
5.1.3. Ohmic regime
5.1.4. Design of injection and extraction layers
5.2. Advanced evaluation of SCLC – potential mapping
5.2.1. Potential mapping by thickness variation
5.2.2. Further evaluation of the transport profile
5.2.3. Injection into and extraction from single carrier devices
5.2.4. Majority carrier approximation
5.3. Proof of principle: POEM on simulated data
5.3.1. Constant mobility
5.3.2. Field dependent mobility
5.3.3. Field and charge density activated mobility
5.3.4. Conclusion
5.4. Application: Transport characterization in organic semiconductors
5.4.1. Hole transport in ZnPc:C60
5.4.2. Hole transport in ZnPc:C60 – temperature variation
5.4.3. Hole transport in ZnPc:C60 – blend ratio variation
5.4.4. Hole transport in ZnPc:C70
5.4.5. Hole transport in neat ZnPc
5.4.6. Hole transport in F4-ZnPc:C60
5.4.7. Hole transport in DCV-5T-Me33:C60
5.4.8. Electron transport in ZnPc:C60
5.4.9. Electron transport in neat Bis-HFl-NTCDI
5.5. Summary and discussion of the results
5.5.1. Phthalocyanine:C60 blends
5.5.2. DCV-5T-Me33:C60
5.5.3. Conclusion
6. Organic solar cell characteristics: the influence of temperature
6.1. ZnPc:C60 solar cells
6.1.1. Temperature variation
6.1.2. Illumination intensity variation
6.2. Voc in flat and bulk heterojunction organic solar cells
6.2.1. Qualitative difference in Voc(I, T)
6.2.2. Interpretation of Voc(I, T)
6.3. BHJ stoichiometry variation
6.3.1. Voc upon variation of stoichiometry and contact layer
6.3.2. V0 upon stoichiometry variation
6.3.3. Low donor content stoichiometry
6.3.4. Conclusion from stoichiometry variation
6.4. Transport material variation
6.4.1. HTM variation
6.4.2. ETM variation
6.5. Donor:acceptor material variation
6.5.1. Donor variation
6.5.2. Acceptor variation
6.6. Conclusion
7. Summary and outlook
7.1. Summary
7.2. Outlook
A. Appendix
A.1. Energy pay-back of this thesis
A.2. Tables and registers / Organische Halbleiter sind eine neue Schlüsseltechnologie für großflächige und flexible Dünnschichtelektronik. Sie werden als dünne Materialschichten (Sub-Nanometer bis Mikrometer) auf großflächige Substrate aufgebracht. Die technologisch am weitesten fortgeschrittenen Anwendungen sind organische Leuchtdioden (OLEDs) und organische Photovoltaik (OPV). Zur weiteren Steigerung von Leistungsfähigkeit und Effizienz ist die genaue Modellierung elektronischer Prozesse in den Bauteilen von grundlegender Bedeutung. Für die erfolgreiche Optimierung von Bauteilen ist eine zuverlässige Charakterisierung und Validierung der elektronischen Materialeigenschaften gleichermaßen erforderlich. Außerdem eröffnet das Verständnis der Zusammenhänge zwischen Materialstruktur und -eigenschaften einen Weg für innovative Material- und Bauteilentwicklung.
Im Rahmen dieser Dissertation werden zwei Methoden für die Materialcharakterisierung entwickelt, verfeinert und angewandt: eine neuartige Methode zur Messung der Ladungsträgerbeweglichkeit μ und eine Möglichkeit zur Bestimmung der Ionisierungsenergie IE oder der Elektronenaffinität EA eines organischen Halbleiters.
Für die Beweglichkeitsmessungen wird eine neue Auswertungsmethode für raumladungsbegrenzte Ströme (SCLC) in unipolaren Bauteilen entwickelt. Sie basiert auf einer Schichtdickenvariation des zu charakterisierenden Materials. In einem Ansatz zur räumlichen Abbildung des elektrischen Potentials (\"potential mapping\", POEM) wird gezeigt, dass das elektrische Potential als Funktion der Schichtdicke V(d) bei einer gegebenen Stromdichte dem räumlichen Verlauf des elektrischen Potentials V(x) im dicksten Bauteil entspricht. Daraus kann die Beweglichkeit als Funktion des elektrischen Felds F und der Ladungsträgerdichte n berechnet werden. Die Auswertung ist modellfrei, d.h. ein Modell zum Angleichen der Messdaten ist für die Berechnung von μ(F, n) nicht erforderlich. Die Messung ist außerdem unabhängig von einer möglichen Injektionsbarriere oder einer Potentialstufe an nicht-idealen Kontakten. Die gemessene Funktion μ(F, n) beschreibt die effektive durchschnittliche Beweglichkeit aller freien und in Fallenzuständen gefangenen Ladungsträger. Dieser Zugang beschreibt den Ladungstransport in energetisch ungeordneten Materialien realistisch, wo eine klare Unterscheidung zwischen freien und Fallenzuständen nicht möglich oder willkürlich ist.
Die Messung von IE und EA wird mithilfe temperaturabhängiger Messungen an Solarzellen durchgeführt. In geeigneten Bauteilen mit einem Mischschicht-Heteroübergang (\"bulk heterojunction\" BHJ) ist die Leerlaufspannung Voc im gesamten Messbereich oberhalb 180K eine linear fallende Funktion der Temperatur T. Es kann bestätigt werden, dass die Extrapolation zum Temperaturnullpunkt V0 = Voc(T → 0K) mit der effektiven Energielücke Egeff , d.h. der Differenz zwischen EA des Akzeptor-Materials und IE des Donator-Materials, übereinstimmt. Die systematische schrittweise Variation einzelner Bestandteile der Solarzellen und die Überprüfung des Einflusses auf V0 bestätigen die Beziehung V0 = Egeff. Damit kann die IE oder EA eines Materials bestimmt werden, indem man es in einem BHJ mit einem Material kombiniert, dessen komplementärer Wert bekannt ist. Messungen per Ultraviolett-Photoelektronenspektroskopie (UPS) und inverser Photoelektronenspektroskopie (IPES) werden damit bestätigt, präzisiert und ergänzt.
Die beiden entwickelten Messmethoden werden auf organische Halbleiter aus kleinen Molekülen einschließlich Mischschichten angewandt. In Mischschichten aus Zink-Phthalocyanin (ZnPc) und C60 wird eine Löcherbeweglichkeit gemessen, die sowohl thermisch als auch feld- und ladungsträgerdichteaktiviert ist. Wenn das Mischverhältnis variiert wird, steigt die Löcherbeweglichkeit mit zunehmendem ZnPc-Anteil, während die effektive Energielücke unverändert bleibt. Verschiedene weitere Materialien und Materialmischungen werden hinsichtlich Löcher- und Elektronenbeweglichkeit sowie ihrer Energielücke charakterisiert, einschließlich bisher wenig untersuchter hochverdünnter Donator-Systeme. In allen Materialien wird eine deutliche Feldaktivierung der Beweglichkeit beobachtet. Die Ergebnisse ermöglichen eine verbesserte Beschreibung der detaillierten Funktionsweise organischer Solarzellen und unterstützen die künftige Entwicklung hocheffizienter und optimierter Bauteile.:1. Introduction
2. Organic semiconductors and devices
2.1. Organic semiconductors
2.1.1. Conjugated π system
2.1.2. Small molecules and polymers
2.1.3. Disorder in amorphous materials
2.1.4. Polarons
2.1.5. Polaron hopping
2.1.6. Fermi-Dirac distribution and Fermi level
2.1.7. Quasi-Fermi levels
2.1.8. Trap states
2.1.9. Doping
2.1.10. Excitons
2.2. Interfaces and blend layers
2.2.1. Interface dipoles
2.2.2. Energy level bending
2.2.3. Injection from metal into semiconductor, and extraction
2.2.4. Excitons at interfaces
2.3. Charge transport and recombination in organic semiconductors
2.3.1. Drift transport
2.3.2. Charge carrier mobility
2.3.3. Thermally activated transport
2.3.4. Diffusion transport
2.3.5. Drift-diffusion transport
2.3.6. Space-charge limited current
2.3.7. Recombination
2.4. Mobility measurement
2.4.1. SCLC and TCLC
2.4.2. Time of flight
2.4.3. Organic field effect transistors
2.4.4. CELIV
2.5. Organic solar cells
2.5.1. Exciton diffusion towards the interface
2.5.2. Dissociation of CT states
2.5.3. CT recombination
2.5.4. Flat and bulk heterojunction
2.5.5. Transport layers
2.5.6. Thin film optics
2.5.7. Current-voltage characteristics and equivalent circuit
2.5.8. Solar cell efficiency
2.5.9. Limits of efficiency
2.5.10. Correct solar cell characterization
2.5.11. The \"O-Factor\"
3. Materials and experimental methods
3.1. Materials
3.2. Device fabrication and layout
3.2.1. Layer deposition
3.2.2. Encapsulation
3.2.3. Homogeneity of layer thickness on a wafer
3.2.4. Device layout
3.3. Characterization
3.3.1. Electrical characterization
3.3.2. Sample illumination
3.3.3. Temperature dependent characterization
3.3.4. UPS
4. Simulations
5.1. Design of single carrier devices
5.1.1. General design requirements
5.1.2. Single carrier devices for space-charge limited current
5.1.3. Ohmic regime
5.1.4. Design of injection and extraction layers
5.2. Advanced evaluation of SCLC – potential mapping
5.2.1. Potential mapping by thickness variation
5.2.2. Further evaluation of the transport profile
5.2.3. Injection into and extraction from single carrier devices
5.2.4. Majority carrier approximation
5.3. Proof of principle: POEM on simulated data
5.3.1. Constant mobility
5.3.2. Field dependent mobility
5.3.3. Field and charge density activated mobility
5.3.4. Conclusion
5.4. Application: Transport characterization in organic semiconductors
5.4.1. Hole transport in ZnPc:C60
5.4.2. Hole transport in ZnPc:C60 – temperature variation
5.4.3. Hole transport in ZnPc:C60 – blend ratio variation
5.4.4. Hole transport in ZnPc:C70
5.4.5. Hole transport in neat ZnPc
5.4.6. Hole transport in F4-ZnPc:C60
5.4.7. Hole transport in DCV-5T-Me33:C60
5.4.8. Electron transport in ZnPc:C60
5.4.9. Electron transport in neat Bis-HFl-NTCDI
5.5. Summary and discussion of the results
5.5.1. Phthalocyanine:C60 blends
5.5.2. DCV-5T-Me33:C60
5.5.3. Conclusion
6. Organic solar cell characteristics: the influence of temperature
6.1. ZnPc:C60 solar cells
6.1.1. Temperature variation
6.1.2. Illumination intensity variation
6.2. Voc in flat and bulk heterojunction organic solar cells
6.2.1. Qualitative difference in Voc(I, T)
6.2.2. Interpretation of Voc(I, T)
6.3. BHJ stoichiometry variation
6.3.1. Voc upon variation of stoichiometry and contact layer
6.3.2. V0 upon stoichiometry variation
6.3.3. Low donor content stoichiometry
6.3.4. Conclusion from stoichiometry variation
6.4. Transport material variation
6.4.1. HTM variation
6.4.2. ETM variation
6.5. Donor:acceptor material variation
6.5.1. Donor variation
6.5.2. Acceptor variation
6.6. Conclusion
7. Summary and outlook
7.1. Summary
7.2. Outlook
A. Appendix
A.1. Energy pay-back of this thesis
A.2. Tables and registers
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