The iron and steel industry has become increasingly globalised. Market conditions are also changing and de-carbonisation of production is challenging. The objective of this thesis is to assess how energy efficiency and greenhouse gas emissions reductions can be promoted and effectively monitored in the steel industry. The thesis contributes with analyses based on the Malmquist Productivity Index for a top-down analysis of the energy efficiency of EU Member States’ iron and steel production, and Partial Least Squares regression for bottom-up assessments of different monitoring tools. The thesis also contributes with a scrap availability assessment module to enhance the energy system model ETSAP-TIAM. The first phase of the research showed that future production needs to shift towards innovative low-CO2 technologies even when all available recycled material is fully used. Techniques using carbon capture and storage (CCS) as well as hydrogen-based technologies can be expected to become economically viable under tightened climate policies. The second phase of the research showed that current indicators are insufficient. System boundaries of energy use and emissions data do not align with production statistics. Indicators based on energy use or emissions in relation to production in physical terms may be useful to track specific processes. However, current indicators fail to reflect the companies’ product mix. Enhanced energy and climate indicators that adjust for the product mix provide better estimates while failing to reflect the increasing globalisation. Effective monitoring of industrial transformation will be increasingly important as pressure from climate policy via global CO2-pricing is unlikely in the short term. Current or enhanced indicators do not fully capture industrial transformation and are not recommended. Future research should focus on defining indicators to estimate energy use and emissions along industrial value chains in climate policy contexts. / Järn- och stålindustrin har blivit alltmer globaliserad. Marknadsvillkoren förändras samtidigt som utfasningen av fossila bränslen är utmanande. Målet med den här avhandlingen är att bedöma hur energieffektivitet och växthusgasutsläppsminskningar kan främjas och effektivt utvärderas inom stålindustrin. Avhandlingen bidrar med analyser baserade Malmquists produktivitetsindex för att analysera energieffektivitet av EU:s medlemsstaters järn- och stålproduktion, och partiell minsta- kvadrat-regression för att bedöma olika utvärderingsmått. Avhandlingen bidrar även med en modul som bedömer skrottillgång för att förbättra energisystemmodellen ETSAP-TIAM. I en första fas visade forskningen att framtida produktion behöver ställas om mot innovativa teknologier med låga CO2-utsläpp även när allt tillgängligt återvunnet material används fullt ut. Tekniker som använder koldioxidinfångning och -lagring (CCS) samt vätebaserade teknologier kan förväntas bli ekonomiskt försvarbara under åtstramade klimatpolitiska styrmedel. I en andra fas visade forskningen att nuvarande indikatorer är otillräckliga. Systemgränser för energianvändnings- och växthusgasutsläppsdata stämmer inte överens med produktionsstatistik. Indikatorer utifrån energianvändning eller utsläpp i relation till fysisk produktion kan vara användbara för att följa upp specifika processer. Nuvarande indikatorer lyckas dock inte spegla företagens produktmix. Förbättrade energi- och klimatindikatorer som justerar för produktmixen ger bättre uppskattningar, men speglar inte branschens ökande globalisering. Effektiv utvärdering av industriell transformation blir alltmer viktig då påtryckning från klimatpolitiska styrmedel via global CO2-prissättning är kortsiktigt osannolik. Nuvarande eller förbättrade indikatorer fångar inte industriell transformation fullt ut och rekommenderas inte. Framtida forskning bör fokusera på att definiera indikatorer som uppskattar energianvändning och växthusgasutsläpp längs industriella värdekedjor. / <p>QC 20170428</p>

The focus of this research is Virginia’s Secondary Highway Construction System funding allocations and its impact on statewide deficient lane miles reduction. The research question guiding this study is: “Which of the four allocation models -- the current Secondary Highway System allocation model or one of three alternatives of this model based on Brian D. Taylor’s geographic equity categories (outcome, opportunity, and market) best maximizes statewide deficient lane miles reductions?” Taylor defines each of these geographic equity categories (independent variables for this study) for all levels of government. While Taylor’s research focus has been on equity as it relates to transit and congestion pricing, this study applied his construct to highways. As a result of scanning subjects related to transportation, the need for this study became apparent. Since the 1980’s, Virginia’s highway allocation formula has not changed (Virginia Department of Transportation, 2005). The Virginia General Assembly has sponsored follow-up studies through a series of resolutions over the years (Auditor of Pubic Accounts, 2004). To date, none of the legislatively sponsored research findings have prompted an update of Virginia’s highway allocation formula (Virginia Transportation Research Council, 2008). There is a significant academic and professional literature on federal transportation politics and specific transportation engineering issues. However, there is very limited research on the development of state level highway transportation funding methodologies. This study used the quantitative research approach, which is concerned with determining the relationship between one factor (an independent variable) and another (a dependent or outcome variable) in a population (Walker, 2005, Newman, 1998, and Geddes, 1990). Therefore, this study employed the quantitative research approach to study cause and effect (Mulhall, 2004, Loughborough, 1995, and Collier 1995) relationships of Virginia’s Secondary construction allocations to individual counties and statewide deficient lane miles reductions overall. The .20 portion of the formula for area was examined because this data rarely changes due to locality annexations. Conversely, the .80 portion of the formula was excluded from the analysis because of the demographic variability due to population shifts. As such, the Federal Highway Administration and states update population statistics from the decennial census with the apportionment of funds for formula based programs such as Virginia’s Secondary Highway Construction program (Federal Register, 2002). This researcher concluded that of the four geographic allocation models, the geographic opportunity equity maximized an additional 4.15 statewide deficient lane miles reductions over the baseline model. This study recommends using the geographic opportunity equity model when allocating Virginia’s Secondary Highway Construction funds to maximize the statewide deficient lane miles reductions above the baseline model, the geographic market equity model and the geographic outcome equity model.

In an effort to obtain 100-year level hurricane protection for southeastern Louisiana, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) has implemented design guidelines that both levees and structures shall be designed to. Historically, USACE has used concrete piles or steel H-piles as the foundations for these structures. Because of the magnitude of obtaining 100-year level hurricane protection, limited resources, and a condensed timeline, spiral welded pipe piles can be manufactured as an alternative to either the concrete piles or steel H-piles. This research will provide the necessary background for understanding pile foundations, will compare the behaviors of spiral welded pipe piles to that of other piles with respect to geotechnical concerns through a series of pile load tests, and will offer a current cost analysis. This background, testing, and cost analysis will show that spiral welded pipe piles are a viable alternative for USACE structures from a geotechnical and economic perspective.

<div>The purpose of this dissertation is to study the effectiveness of public policies in generating fuel savings and emissions reductions. I focus on applying various empirical methods to analyze consumer responses to policy changes on both extensive and intensive margins. This dissertation consists of two chapters.</div><div><br></div><div>In the first chapter, I compare the effectiveness of fuel taxes and product taxes on reducing gasoline consumption of new car buyers. I employ a unified data source for vehicle choice and subsequent vehicle use to estimate a random effects logit demand model that explicitly accounts for vehicle use heterogeneity. My demand estimation suggests that new car buyers fully value the fuel-saving benefits from improved vehicle fuel efficiency when they initially purchase their cars. My policy simulations indicate that high-mileage drivers are more responsive to a change in fuel taxes than to a change in product taxes, even as low-mileage drivers are more responsive to product taxes. By capturing such heterogeneous consumer response to policies, I show that a counterfactual increase of the fuel tax is more effective than a revenue-equivalent product tax in reducing the total gasoline consumption of new car buyers. Further, when accounting for its effects on consumer response on both extensive and intensive margins, a change in fuel taxes has a clear advantage over a change in product taxes in reducing the consumption of gasoline even when the magnitude of tax increase is small. More importantly, a model not accounting for vehicle use heterogeneity understates the fuel saving effects of both policies and misleads us about the relative effectiveness when comparing different policies. </div><div><br></div><div>The second chapter explores how changes in the marginal cost of driving affect consumers decisions about passenger vehicle utilization, as measured by average daily miles traveled per vehicle. This intensive margin of consumer response has important implications for the effectiveness of usage-based policies, such as the fuel tax and the mileage tax, that designed to address externalities of driving. I estimate the elasticity of driving with respect to fuel cost per mile using a large panel data that covers 351 towns and cities in Massachusetts over 24 quarters. While most researchers in this literature apply fixed effects estimators to examine the elasticity of driving, I use a factor model econometric setup to account for unobserved common factors and regional heterogeneity. Residual diagnostics confirm that the factor model setup does a better job of removing the cross-section dependence than fixed effects estimators do. Given low consumer responsiveness to changes in the marginal cost of driving engendered by current usage-based policies, rights-based approaches like congestion charges might be better alternatives to influence vehicle utilization and vehicle ownership.</div>

<p>The advantages of high efficiency, reliability, flexibility and high power to weight ratio make axial piston pumps popular for use in a wide variety of applications like construction and agricultural machinery, off road vehicles and aerospace applications. However, a major drawback which limits their extensive use in other commercial applications is noise. One of the important components in axial piston machines is the valve plate, which influences the transition of the suction and delivery flows into and out of the displacement chamber. Appropriate design of the valve plate can play a significant role in influencing the rate of compression and expansion in the displacement chamber, and hence contribute towards the abatement of noise in axial piston machines. Furthermore, the relief grooves in valve plates makes them relatively less sensitive to operating conditions for the operation of the pump. The high sensitivity of the valve plate design towards the pressure build up in the displacement chamber and towards the noise sources are big motivation factors towards rigorously exploring the design space to find suitable designs to meet the objective of noise reduction. This motivates the development of an advanced computational tool, colloquially called 'MiNoS', where a powerful optimization algorithm has been combined together with a novel parametrization scheme for valve plate design and a 1D simulation model of swash plate type axial piston machines to find optimized designs which can contribute towards noise reduction in swash plate type axial piston machines. Furthermore, incorporation of the appropriate constraint also helps in avoiding designs susceptible to the onset of cavitation in the displacement chamber. A case study performed using the developed computational tool has been shown later in this work.</p>

O presente trabalho consta da descrição explicativa dos processos de ocupação da Região das Missões Jesuítico-Guarani, que contribuíram para que a mesma tenha se constituído hoje, em uma \"Região Turística Transfronteiriça\". Sua configuração atual resulta do processo de expansão colonial ibérica e das relações que se estabeleceram entre os colonizadores e os habitantes locais e, entre ambos e o ambiente com seus recursos. Constatou-se que sua singularidade é uma conseqüência dos processos históricos que são evidenciados em três períodos bem característicos: Período pré-jesuítico: caracterizado pela organização dos Guarani em pequenas comunidades, que ocupavam os lugares com solo fértil para a prática da agricultura, como as várzeas dos grandes rios, vales e lugares com matas. Mantinham uma relação ecológica com o território, retirando da terra somente o necessário à sua sobrevivência. Período jesuítico: no qual houve a ?redução? da comunidade indígena, que passou a manter uma nova forma de se relacionar com o território; implantando, ao mesmo tempo, um sistema de produção coletivo-complementar, aliado a um sistema comercial responsável por enviar, para a Europa, produtos como sebo, erva-mate, algodão, chifre e couro. Período pós-jesuítico: vai, desde a derrocada das Missões até os dias de hoje. Caracterizado pelos desajustes sociais, econômicos e ambientais, frutos das expansões agropecuárias, mineiras e industrial, baseada em um modelo que se caracterizou pelo deterioramento do meio ambiente como custo necessário ao progresso, não se mostrou viável para resolver os problemas econômicos e sociais da população regional. Esse período caracteriza-se também pela busca de soluções para os problemas regionais, através da dinamização do uso público do rico patrimônio histórico-cultural através do turismo. Surgem projetos e programas voltados para a dinamização do turismo regional, no entanto os mesmos não atingiram totalmente os objetivos a que se propuseram. O uso do método evolutivo histórico, a partir da pesquisa bibliográfica e da pesquisa de campo, com observação direta sistematizada e realização de entrevistas, proporcionou o alcance dos objetivos de: analisar a importância das Missões Jesuíticas na consolidação das fronteiras do sul do Brasil; analisar a situação dos sítios arqueológicos das antigas reduções jesuítico-Guarani, avaliar a importância dos remanescentes arquitetônicos das reduções como potencial turístico; analisar os programas e projetos propostos para a Região das Missões em relação ao turismo, além de fornecer subsídios que possam contribuir para a implementação, intensificação e expansão da atividade turística regional. / The present work is a descriptive explanation of the processes of the occupation of the Jesuit-Guarani Missions, which ended up transforming it into a tourist atiraction beyond borders. Its present-day status is a result of the relations which have been established between the Iberian sett and the Local inhabitants and among themselves, and the environment with its resources. It can be said that its singularity is a consequence of the history´s processes which are evident in three welI-defined periods: Pre-Jesuit period it is characterized by the organization of the Guarani Indians in small communities which occupied places having a fertile soil, good for agriculture, like the flat lands along rivers, valleys and woodland. They maintained an ecological relation with lhe territory, extracting from the soil only the every day necessities for their survival. Jesuit Period: in which there was a \"reduction\" of the Indian community and which started a new way of interaction with the territory, irnplementing, at the same time, a coilective cornplementary production system together with a business-like system responsible for sending to Europe products like tallow, mate, cotton, horn and leather. Post-Jesuit Period: beginn ing since the destruction of the Missions till nowadays. lt is characterized by social , economical and environmental due to agronornic , mineral and industrial expansion, based on a model which is characterized by the deterioration of the environment as a by-product of progress, not being able to solve the economic and social problems of the regional population. This period is also characterized because of a search for solutions for regional problems, through a dynarnic use of its rich cultural-historical touristic patrirnony. The use of lhe historical evolutionary rnethod, through bibliographic and field research, with direct and systematic observation and interviews Ied to the following objectives: to analyze the irnportance of lhe Jesuit Missions in the consolidation of the Southern Brazilian boundaries; to analyze the situation of the archeological sites of the former Jesuit-Guarani reductions, to evaluate the importance of lhe architectonic remainings of the old Jesuit-Guarani reductions as a touristic potential; tlo analyze the prograrns and the projects destined to the Missions Region as far as tourism is concerned, besides best subsidies which can contribute in the implementation, intensification and expansion of lhe regional tourism activity.

O presente trabalho tem o objetivo de entender o contexto atual das ações para mitigar mudanças perigosas do clima e o momento de transição do setor elétrico brasileiro. Ao reconhecer o potencial de sinergia, são apresentadas três contribuições: ao cálculo do fator de emissão de linha de base para geração de eletricidade conectada à rede a partir de fontes renováveis, à avaliação do potencial do MDL em influenciar a expansão da capacidade de geração de eletricidade no Brasil e, finalmente, uma proposta de política pública para fazer convergir os objetivos da Convenção do Clima e do planejamento do setor elétrico brasileiro. O Brasil tem uma matriz elétrica relativamente limpa, mas isso não necessariamente quer dizer que as emissões evitadas na margem da nova geração serão pequenas. Ao apresentar a evolução das metodologias de quantificação dos fatores de emissão do cenário de referência (linha de base), emerge uma proposta de cálculo de fator de emissão da margem de construção - baseado nos resultados dos leilões de energia nova - que indica um potencial de redução de emissões bastante maior que a prática atual. Para testar a proposta de cálculo do fator de emissão, um modelo de expansão da capacidade de geração é desenvolvido e identificado com os resultados dos leilões de energia. O modelo é então utilizado em conjunto com a proposta de nova metodologia de cálculo de fator de emissão para testar a capacidade do MDL de influenciar decisões de investimento. O resultado dessa simulação demonstra que o cenário existente no final de 2007 tem um potencial significativo de influenciar a expansão do parque gerador brasileiro. Finalmente, é apresentada uma proposta de inserção do MDL nos leilões de energia alternativa para aproveitar a sinergia entre o desejo de diversificação da matriz elétrica brasileira e a utilização de mecanismos de mercado na redução de emissões de gases de efeito estufa, ajudando o Brasil a atingir um desenvolvimento mais sustentável. / The present work identifies the context of the existing actions to mitigate dangerous climate change and the transition period experienced by the Brazilian power sector. In order to use the potential synergy identified three contributions are made: a methodology to calculate baseline emission factor for grid-connected electricity generation from renewable sources, an evaluation of the potential of the CDM to contribute to the power capacity expansion in Brazil and finally, a public policy proposal is made to convene the aims of the UNFCCC and the development of the Brazilian power sector. The estimated greenhouse gases emission factor of the Brazilian power sector is relatively small; nevertheless build margin emission factor will not necessarily stay small. While showing the evolution of the methodologies used to calculate the baseline emission factor in the power sector, a new proposal for the calculation of the build margin emissions factor base in the results of the recent new energy auctions arises, indicating a noteworthy emission reduction potential. In order to test the influence of the proposed baseline emission factor calculation a model is developed to simulate the power sector expansion. The model is then identified with the data of the new energy auction of the last years. The results of the simulations show that the actual conditions of the CDM market already have the capacity to modify the recent trend of new additions. Finally, it is suggested the consideration of the CDM benefits in the public auctions towards the addition of renewable energy based power generation. The potential results are the contribution to the ultimate objective of the UNFCCC - greenhouse gases emission reductions - and the assistance to sustainable development in Brazil with an increased share of renewable energy base power generation.

O presente trabalho tem o objetivo de entender o contexto atual das ações para mitigar mudanças perigosas do clima e o momento de transição do setor elétrico brasileiro. Ao reconhecer o potencial de sinergia, são apresentadas três contribuições: ao cálculo do fator de emissão de linha de base para geração de eletricidade conectada à rede a partir de fontes renováveis, à avaliação do potencial do MDL em influenciar a expansão da capacidade de geração de eletricidade no Brasil e, finalmente, uma proposta de política pública para fazer convergir os objetivos da Convenção do Clima e do planejamento do setor elétrico brasileiro. O Brasil tem uma matriz elétrica relativamente limpa, mas isso não necessariamente quer dizer que as emissões evitadas na margem da nova geração serão pequenas. Ao apresentar a evolução das metodologias de quantificação dos fatores de emissão do cenário de referência (linha de base), emerge uma proposta de cálculo de fator de emissão da margem de construção - baseado nos resultados dos leilões de energia nova - que indica um potencial de redução de emissões bastante maior que a prática atual. Para testar a proposta de cálculo do fator de emissão, um modelo de expansão da capacidade de geração é desenvolvido e identificado com os resultados dos leilões de energia. O modelo é então utilizado em conjunto com a proposta de nova metodologia de cálculo de fator de emissão para testar a capacidade do MDL de influenciar decisões de investimento. O resultado dessa simulação demonstra que o cenário existente no final de 2007 tem um potencial significativo de influenciar a expansão do parque gerador brasileiro. Finalmente, é apresentada uma proposta de inserção do MDL nos leilões de energia alternativa para aproveitar a sinergia entre o desejo de diversificação da matriz elétrica brasileira e a utilização de mecanismos de mercado na redução de emissões de gases de efeito estufa, ajudando o Brasil a atingir um desenvolvimento mais sustentável. / The present work identifies the context of the existing actions to mitigate dangerous climate change and the transition period experienced by the Brazilian power sector. In order to use the potential synergy identified three contributions are made: a methodology to calculate baseline emission factor for grid-connected electricity generation from renewable sources, an evaluation of the potential of the CDM to contribute to the power capacity expansion in Brazil and finally, a public policy proposal is made to convene the aims of the UNFCCC and the development of the Brazilian power sector. The estimated greenhouse gases emission factor of the Brazilian power sector is relatively small; nevertheless build margin emission factor will not necessarily stay small. While showing the evolution of the methodologies used to calculate the baseline emission factor in the power sector, a new proposal for the calculation of the build margin emissions factor base in the results of the recent new energy auctions arises, indicating a noteworthy emission reduction potential. In order to test the influence of the proposed baseline emission factor calculation a model is developed to simulate the power sector expansion. The model is then identified with the data of the new energy auction of the last years. The results of the simulations show that the actual conditions of the CDM market already have the capacity to modify the recent trend of new additions. Finally, it is suggested the consideration of the CDM benefits in the public auctions towards the addition of renewable energy based power generation. The potential results are the contribution to the ultimate objective of the UNFCCC - greenhouse gases emission reductions - and the assistance to sustainable development in Brazil with an increased share of renewable energy base power generation.

The development and application of unnatural amino alcohols,prepared via hetero-Diels-Alder reactions,in synthesis and catalysis is described.The studies are concerned with the [i]scope of the hetero-Diels-Alder reaction and preparation of important intermediates in the synthesis of antiviral agents,[ii ]application of amino alcohols in the ruthenium transfer hydrogenation of ketones,[iii ]use of similar precursors in the in situ generation of oxazaborolidines for reduction of ketones,and [iv] development and application of new chiral auxiliaries for dialkylzinc additions to activated imines, respectively. [i ]The use of chiral exo -2-azanorbornyl-3-carboxylates in the preparation of enantiopure cyclopentyl-amines is described.At the same time the scope of the hetero-Diels-Alder reaction,used in their preparation,is extended by manipulations of the dienophiles. [ii ]Application of 2-azanorbornyl-3-methanol as a very efficient ligand in the ruthenium-catalysed asymmetric transfer hydrogenation of aromatic ketones.This ligand (2 mol%)in combination with [RuCl2(p -cymene)]2 (0.25 mol%)gave rise to a very fast reaction (1.5 h)leading to the reduced products in excellent yields and enantioselectivities (up to 97%ee ). [iii ]Preparation of α-disubstituded 2-azanorbornyl-3-methanols,in situ generation of the corresponding oxazaborolidines,and use of the latter in reduction of aromatic ketones.Concentration, solvent,and temperature effects on the reaction outcome are described. [iv ]Development of two generations of chiral auxiliaries for the addition of dialkylzinc reagents to N - (diphenylphosphinoyl)imines.Studies using density functional computations allowed the rationalisation of the reaction mechanism and the development of a second generation of ligands that improved the previously reported results.Up to 98%ee could be obtained with these new ligands. Solvent effects on the outcome of the reaction and extension of the work to a larger variety of N - (diphenylphosphinoyl)imines are described.

Asymmetric hydrogenation has emerged as a versatile methodology to obtain a wide range of chiral precursors. This thesis focused on the synthesis of new chiral ligands and the expansion of the substrate scope of asymmetric hydrogenations. Paper I described the synthesis and evaluation of N,P-ligands for the Ir-catalyzed hydrogenations of unfunctionalized olefins. The substrate scope of Ir-catalyzed asymmetric hydrogenations is limited to a narrow range of “test” olefins. The foremost focus of this thesis was to expand the substrate scope of Ir-catalyzed asymmetric hydrogenations. Papers II and III disclosed the potential of the N,P-ligated Ir complexes in hydrogenation of the enol phosphinates. This substrate class is attractive because the hydrogenated products are chiral alkylphosphinates that can be transformed into chiral alcohols and chiral phosphines without sacrificing enantiopurity. A wide range of enol phosphinates were hydrogenated to excellent conversions and enatioselectivities. The hydrogenation of purely alkyl-substituted enol phosphinates in very high conversions and ee values was emphasized in these studies. Paper IV described the investigation of unfunctionalized enamines as substrates in Ir-catalyzed hydrogenation studies. The hydrogenation results and structural limitations of the substrates are presented. Paper V described the asymmetric hydrogenation of diphenylvinylphosphine oxides, di- and trisubstituted vinyl phosphonates. The hydrogenation of diphenylvinylphosphine oxides gives direct access to protected chiral phosphines. The hydrogenated products of vinylphosphonates are highly synthetically useful in pharmaceutical and material chemistry. Hydrogenation of E/Z mixtures of carboxyethyl vinylphosphonates with perfect enantioselectivities was striking in these studies. In paper VI, we have reported the development of a new, highly enantioselective synthetic route to building blocks with CF3 at the chiral center. Several functionalized and unfunctionalized CF3-substituted olefins were hydrogenated with varied degree of success. This methedilogy is useful in the formation of chiral fluorine-containing molecules for a wide range of applications. Paper VII described the hydrogenation of imines using the phosphine-free Cp*Ru/diamine complexes. Chiral version of this reaction was also examined. Despite the modest results, this is the first study to use phosphine-free Cp*Ru/diamine complexes as catalysts for the reduction of C=N double bonds.