L'objectif de cette thèse est d'identifier les effets des coûts à l'échange sur la structure du commerce par qualité. Dans le premier chapitre, nous analysons empiriquement les déterminants des exportations de Cognac et nous nous focalisons sur l'impact des coûts à l'échange. Nous montrons que, comme pour d'autres produits de luxe, l'élasticité des exportations de Cognac à la distance est négative et relativement faible. Les droits de douane n'ont par ailleurs pas d'impact significatif sur la marge intensive, mais nous trouvons un impact négatif sur la marge extensive, une fois corrigé d'un biais d'endogénéité. Dans le deuxième chapitre, nous testons empiriquement la validité de l'effet Alchian-Allen qui stipule que les couts unitaires augmentent la demande relative des biens de haute qualité. Nous exploitons la dimension « qualité » de nos données sur les exportations de Cognac. La mesure de la qualité du Cognac est objective et ne varie pas dans le temps. Nos résultats montrent que la distance et les droits de douane spécifiques augmentent la part relative des exportations de Cognac de haute qualité. Nous examinons également l'impact de la conteneurisation sur la structure par qualité des exportations de Cognac entre 1967 et 2013. Dans le troisième chapitre, nous construisons un modèle théorique de duopole Nord-Sud en concurrence à la Bertrand sur les deux marchés. Nous étudions l'impact de plusieurs instruments (droit de douane, quota et standard de qualité) sur l'investissement en R&D de produit de la firme du Nord. Nous montrons que cet investissement augmente avec chaque instrument de politique commerciale à l'exception du quota d'importation.. / The objective of this dissertation is to identify the effects of trade costs on the quality structure of international trade flows. In chapter one we empirically analyze the determinants of Cognac export flows and emphasize the role of trade costs. We show that, as with other luxury products, the elasticity of Cognac exports to distance is negative and relatively small. Meanwhile, average customs duties do not have a significant impact on the intensive margin, but we find that they negatively affect the probability of trade, after correcting for an endogeneity bias. In chapter two we empirically test the validity of the Alchian and Allen effect that states that per-unit charges increase the relative demand of higher quality goods. We use data on Cognac exports by quality designations. The measure of Cognac quality is objective and invariant over time. Our results show that distance and specific duties increase the share of exports of higher quality Cognac. We also examine the impact of containerization on Cognac's quality mix from 1967 to 2013. In chapter three we build a theoretical model of a North-South duopoly where firms compete in prices on both markets. We use this framework to study the impact of several trade policy instruments (import tariff, quota and quality standard) on the product R&D investment of the Northern firm. Our results show that the Northern firm's R&D expenditures increase with each policy instrument except for the import quota.

Abstract The importance of product development in companies has increased, as competition in many industries has turned global and product life cycles have become shorter. Despite the rich literature and the significance of product development in businesses, many organisations still struggle to develop products that meet market and customer needs. Furthermore, product development for a large number of international customers involves various stakeholders with conflicting needs. Thus, product development is increasingly complex to manage. This doctoral dissertation aims to improve the outcome of product development by clarifying the factors that initiate product development in companies, the relations of different external and internal stakeholders to these drivers, and how the needs of key stakeholders are obtained. The study focuses on the early product development phases of new product development (NPD) intensive companies that are based in Finland, but have major international operations and large customer bases. The research was carried out by collecting and analysing data from companies representing product development practices in both business-to-business (B2B) and business-to-consumer (B2C) markets. The experiences of managers across different industries are utilised. This dissertation adopts a qualitative research approach, and surveys and interviews are utilised as the main data collection methods. This dissertation shows that many significant drivers for product development exist in companies. In addition, these drivers differ significantly between projects, companies, and even individuals. Based on the results, companies should clarify their product development drivers and align them among the relevant stakeholders to enhance the decision-making and focus of product development efforts. The study also reveals the relations between different external and internal stakeholders and the product development drivers, and the key stakeholders for the individual drivers. The results indicate that companies should identify the most important stakeholders based on the project drivers and allocate managerial attention appropriately. As expected, the research findings support previous studies by identifying customers as the most important external stakeholders in product development. On the other hand, the significance of product management among internal stakeholders is highlighted in the results. This dissertation indicates that companies should enable product management to lead collaboration with stakeholders close to customers in product development projects. The role of product management involves leading customer definition, representation, and customer needs identification for R&D. However, product management must also collaborate with many customer-related stakeholders in product development efforts. The main implication of this dissertation is a new managerial framework that, if successfully implemented, can significantly enhance product development outcomes by providing appropriate focus on customers and reducing unnecessary complexities through the clarification of the project drivers, the key stakeholders, and customer needs. / Tiivistelmä Tuotekehityksen merkitys yrityksille on kasvanut globaalin kilpailun ja tuote-elinkaarien lyhentymisten myötä. Lukuisista tutkimuksista ja tuotekehitystoiminnan tärkeydestä liiketoiminnalle huolimatta useilla organisaatioilla on edelleen haasteita kehittää markkinoiden ja asiakkaiden tarpeita vastaavia tuotteita. Lisäksi tuotekehityksessä isolle, kansainväliselle, asiakaskunnalle on mukana useita erilaisia sidosryhmiä, joiden tarpeet ovat ristiriidassa keskenään. Tämän takia tuotekehityksen johtamisesta on tullut entistä monimutkaisempaa. Tämä väitöskirja pyrkii parantamaan tuotekehityksen tulosta selventämällä tekijät, jotka ovat syynä tuotekehityksen aloittamiseen yrityksissä, erilaisten ulkoisten ja sisäisten sidosryhmien suhteet näihin tuotekehitysajureihin sekä miten tärkeimpien sidosryhmien tarpeet selvitetään. Tutkimus keskittyy tuotekehityksen alkuvaiheisiin Suomessa toimivissa yrityksissä, joilla on voimakas panostus tuotekehitykseen ja lisäksi merkittävää kansainvälistä toimintaa sekä suuri määrä asiakkaita. Tutkimus tehtiin keräämällä ja analysoimalla tietoa yritysten tuotekehityskäytännöistä sekä tuotantohyödykemarkkinoilla että kuluttajamarkkinoilla. Tietoa kerättiin myös eri teollisuudenaloilta. Tämä väitöskirja perustuu laadulliseen tutkimukseen ja tutkimusaineiston keräämisessä on hyödynnetty kyselytutkimuksia sekä haastatteluita. Tämä väitöskirja osoittaa, että yritysten tuotekehitykseen löytyy useita merkittäviä ajureita. Tämän lisäksi nämä ajurit eroavat merkittävästi projektien, yritysten ja jopa yksittäisten henkilöiden välillä. Tulosten perusteella yritysten pitäisi selvittää, mitkä ajurit ovat niiden liiketoiminnan kannalta olennaisimpia ja tarkentaa niitä tuotekehityksen päätöksenteon ja painopisteen parantamiseksi. Tutkimus paljastaa myös ulkoisten ja sisäisten sidosryhmien suhteet tuotekehitysajureihin sekä tärkeimmät sidosryhmät yksittäisille ajureille. Tulokset osoittavat, että yritysten pitäisi tunnistaa tärkeimmät sidosryhmät projektien ajureiden perusteella ja ottaa ajurit huomioon sidosryhmäjohtamisessa. Tutkimuksen löydökset tukevat aikaisempia tutkimuksia osoittaen asiakkaiden olevan tärkein ulkoinen sidosryhmä tuotekehityksessä, kun taas sisäisistä sidosryhmistä nousee esille tuotehallinta. Tämä väitöskirja osoittaa, että yritysten tuotekehitysprojekteissa tuotehallinnan tulisi johtaa asiakkaita lähellä oleviin sidosryhmiin liittyvää sidosryhmäyhteistyötä. Tuotehallinnan tehtäviin kuuluu asiakkaan määrittely, edustus ja asiakastarpeiden tunnistaminen. Tuotehallinnan pitää myös tehdä yhteistyötä useiden asiakkaisiin liittyvien sidosryhmien kanssa tuotekehityksen aikana. Tämä väitöskirja tarjoaa uuden johtamisen viitekehityksen, joka oikein toteutettuna voi parantaa merkittävästi tuotekehityksen lopputulosta. Projektin ajurien, tärkeimpien sidosryhmien ja asiakastarpeiden selventäminen varmistaa oikeanlaisen keskittymisen asiakkaisiin ja vähentää tarpeettomia monimutkaisuuksia tuotekehityksessä.

The founding documents for a new, democratic South Africa adopted a more inclusive and people-driven approach to innovation. The literature and policy analysis reveals a „shift‟ away from this approach to a more market-driven, exclusivist approach to innovation. R&D (research and development) and technology-driven innovation had been institutionalised at the expense of social, cultural and indigenous innovations. This „shift‟ limits the potential of innovation to benefit a wider segment of society. The absence of a „model‟ of innovation that exploits the strengths of all forms of innovation runs the risk of defeating the normative intentions of the founding innovation policies of the new, post-Apartheid and democratic South Africa. The OECD, from which South Africa „inherited‟ its notion of innovation, acknowledges the shortcomings of the technological innovation and calls for a conceptual framework that will address the shortcomings of the dominant, exclusivist notion of innovation. This inquiry was conducted to investigate an appropriate conceptual framework of innovation that would contribute towards achieving normative policy intentions of post-Apartheid South Africa. It employed a grounded theory design that used semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, document analysis, observations and cooperative inquiry. The data analysed suggest the following propositions: 1. Thesis 1: Innovation is constrained by the dominant science and technology paradigm. 2. Thesis 2: Inclusive and integrative innovation cannot exist within an exclusivist innovation paradigm. 3. Thesis 3: Transforming an exclusivist paradigm into an inclusivist paradigm requires change at constitutive level and not just at regulatory level.4. Thesis 4: Synthesising an inclusive and integrative innovation requires creativity, open dialogue and imagination. Against the above propositions, this thesis recommends a conceptual framework that is underpinned by an inclusive and integrative paradigm. Such a framework proposes transformative actions that have potential to achieve normative policy intentions of post-Apartheid South Africa. Further research into a constitutive design for an inclusive and integrative innovation policies and practices is recommended. / Educational Studies / D. Ed. (Philosophy of Education)

Questo lavoro intende analizzare la correlazione tra innovazione delle imprese e capital sociale, misurato da indicatori classici (come la partecipazione politica e le attività nel tempo libero) e da indicatori maggiormente legati alla dimensione aziendale (come accordi e cooperazioni). L’analisi viene fatta sia per l’Italia che per il Regno Unito attraverso l’uso della Community Innovation Survey 4, la survey europea sull’innovazione e la R&S nelle imprese per i dati su innovazione e capital sociale aziendale. Inoltre vengono utilizzate l’Indagine Multiscopo 2000 per l’Italia e l’Indice di Deprivazione per l’Inghilterra come misure di capitale sociale classico. Infine viene proposta una comparazione dei risultati per i due paesi per l’analisi sul capitale sociale aziendale. Questa comparazione è riletta alla luce di più generali considerazioni sui due differenti sistemi produttivi ed economici. / This work would try to test the correlation between innovation in firms and social capital, measured by classic indicators (like political participation, leisure and activities) and more corporate indicators (like agreements and collaborations). The analysis is carried out for Italy and UK and we use the Community Innovation Survey 4, the European survey on innovation and R&D in the firms, for the data on innovation and corporate social capital. We use the Multipurpose Survey 2000 for Italy and the Index of Deprivation for England like measures of classic social capital. We further try a comparison of the results between the two countries for the analysis on corporate social capital. This comparison is finally referred to more general issues like the two different productive and economic systems.

During the last two decades, there have been a number of policy and legislative changes in respect of South Africa’s intellectual property (IP) and the national system of innovation (NSI). In 2012, a Ministerial Review of the Science, Technology and Innovation (STI) landscape in South Africa made recommendations to improve the STI landscape and effectively the national system of innovation. The study provides a critical review of drafts of the national IP policy published in 2013 as well as the IP Framework released in 2016 for public comment. The review of the IP and the NSI are within the context of the National Development Plan (NDP), which outlines South Africa’s desired developmental goals. South Africa is part of the BRICS group of countries (Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa). The South African economy is characterised by a desire to move away from being dependent on resources and commodities, to becoming a more knowledge based and innovation driven economy. It is hoped that such a move would assist the country to address some of the social and economic development challenges facing South Africa, as captured in the NDP. South Africa has a functioning IP system, but its relationship with South Africa’s development trajectory is not established. More particularly, the extent to which the IP system relates to the innovation system and how these two systems must be aligned to enable South Africa to transition successfully from a country based on the production of primary resources and associated commodity-based industries to a viable knowledge-based economy is unclear. The Trade-related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS Agreement) of the World Trade Organisation (WTO) provides that IP must contribute to innovation and to transfer of technology and knowledge in a manner that is conducive to social and economic welfare. Certain provisions set out the foundations of intellectual property systems within the context of each member state. This study has thus explored the complex, complementary and sometimes contested relationships between IP and innovation, with particular emphasis on the potential of an intellectual property system to stimulate innovation and foster social and economic development. The study has also analysed the interconnectivity of IP and innovation with other WTO legal instruments, taking into account South Africa’s positioning within the globalised economy and in particular the BRICS group of countries. The research involved a critical review of South Africa’s IP and innovation policies, as well as relevant legislation, instruments, infrastructure, IP and innovation landscape, and relationship with international WTO legal instruments, in addition to its performance, given the developmental priorities and the globalised economy. The research documents patenting trends by South Africans using European Patent Office (EPO), Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT), United States Patents and Trademarks Office (USPTO) databases over the period 1996-2015. A comparative analysis of patenting trends amongst BRICS group of countries has also been documented. The study also documents new findings, observations and insights regarding South Africa’s IP and innovation systems. Some of these, particularly in relation to higher education and research institutions, are directly attributable to the Intellectual Property Rights from Publicly Financed Research and Development Act. More particularly, the public institutions are becoming relevant players in the NSI and are responsible for growth of certain technology clusters, in particular, biotechnology. At the same time, the study makes findings of a decline of private sector participation in patenting as well as R&D investment over the 20-year period. Recommendations are included regarding specific interventions to ensure coherence between the IP and innovation systems. Such coherence and alignment should strengthen the systems’ ability to stimulate innovation and foster inclusive development and competitiveness, which are relevant for addressing South Africa’s socio-economic development priorities. / Mercantile Law / LL. D.

Research and Development engineering is at the corner stone of humanity’s evolution. It is perceived to be a systematic creative process which ultimately improves the living standard of a society through the creation of new applications and products. The commercial paradigm that governs project selection, resource allocation and market penetration prevails when the focus shifts from pure research to applied research. Furthermore, the road to success through commercialisation is difficult for most inventors, especially in a vast and isolated country such as Australia which is located a long way from wealthy and developed economies. While market leading products are considered unique, the actual process to achieve these products is essentially the same; progressing from an idea, through development to an outcome (if successful). Unfortunately, statistics indicate that only 3% of ‘ideas’ are significantly successful, 4% are moderately successful, and the remainder ‘evaporate’ in that form (Michael Quinn, Chairman, Innovation Capital Associates Pty Ltd). This study demonstrates and analyses two techniques developed by the author which reduce uncertainty in the engineering design and development phase of new product development and therefore increase the probability of a successful outcome. This study expands the existing knowledge of the engineering design and development stage in the new product development process and is couched in the identification of practical methods, which have been successfully used to develop new products by Australian Small Medium Enterprise (SME) Excel Technology Group Pty Ltd (ETG). Process theory is the term most commonly used to describe scientific study that identifies occurrences that result from a specified input state to an output state, thus detailing the process used to achieve an outcome. The thesis identifies relevant material and analyses recognised and established engineering processes utilised in developing new products. The literature identified that case studies are a particularly useful method for supporting problem-solving processes in settings where there are no clear answers or where problems are unstructured, as in New Product Development (NPD). This study describes, defines, and demonstrates the process of new product development within the context of historical product development and a ‘live’ case study associated with an Australian Government START grant awarded to Excel Technology Group in 2004 to assist in the development of an image-based vehicle detection product. This study proposes two techniques which reduce uncertainty and thereby improve the probability of a successful outcome. The first technique provides a predicted project development path or forward engineering plan which transforms the initial ‘fuzzy idea’ into a potential and achievable outcome. This process qualifies the ‘fuzzy idea’ as a potential, rationale or tangible outcome which is within the capability of the organisation. Additionally, this process proposes that a tangible or rationale idea can be deconstructed in reverse engineering process in order to create a forward engineering development plan. A detailed structured forward engineering plan reduces the uncertainty associated with new product development unknowns and therefore contributes to a successful outcome. This is described as the RETRO technique. The study recognises however that this claim requires qualification and proposes a second technique. The second technique proposes that a two dimensional spatial representation which has productivity and consumed resources as its axes, provides an effective means to qualify progress and expediently identify variation from the predicted plan. This spatial representation technique allows a quick response which in itself has a prediction attribute associated with directing the project back onto its predicted path. This process involves a coterminous comparison between the predicted development path and the evolving actual project development path. A consequence of this process is verification of progress or the application of informed, timely and quantified corrective action. This process also identifies the degree of success achieved in the engineering design and development phase of new product development where success is defined as achieving a predicted outcome. This spatial representation technique is referred to as NPD Mapping. The study demonstrates that these are useful techniques which aid SMEs in achieving successful new product outcomes because the technique are easily administered, measure and represent relevant development process related elements and functions, and enable expedient quantified responsive action when the evolving path varies from the predicted path. These techniques go beyond time line representations as represented in GANTT charts and PERT analysis, and represent the base variables of consumed resource and productivity/technical achievement in a manner that facilitates higher level interpretation of time, effort, degree of difficulty, and product complexity in order to facilitate informed decision making. This study presents, describes, analyses and demonstrates an SME focused engineering development technique, developed by the author, that produces a successful new product outcome which begins with a ‘fuzzy idea’ in the mind of the inventor and concludes with a successful new product outcome that is delivered on time and within budget. Further research on a wider range of SME organisations undertaking new product development is recommended.