Les études effectuées sur l’intégration économique des migrants au Canada ont jusqu’ici été réservées aux migrants internationaux. Le présent document fait état des résultats et des caractéristiques des migrants ayant effectué une migration à l’intérieur de leur propre province entre 1996 et 2007. En opposition aux difficultés d’intégration économique des migrants internationaux, notre recherche démontre que les migrants intraprovinciaux s’intègrent dans leur nouvel environnement à un niveau économique légèrement supérieur à la population d’accueil. Les résultats obtenus à l’aide du volet longitudinal de l’Enquête sur la dynamique du travail et du revenu (EDTR) dévoilent que les migrants intraprovinciaux ont un revenu annuel médian de 38 017$, soit un revenu légèrement supérieur à celui des non-migrants. Notre étude permet toutefois de constater que les caractéristiques personnelles des migrants sont des déterminants bien plus importants du revenu. Les hommes gagnent en moyenne un peu plus de 10 000$ de plus par année que les femmes, et ce, autant chez les migrants que chez les non-migrants. Le niveau d’éducation est aussi une variable significative du revenu. L’écart entre le revenu médian des migrants ayant complété le secondaire et ceux ayant un niveau universitaire est de près de 12 000$. Finalement, on remarque que le groupe d’âge des 46-55 ans est celui qui affiche les plus hauts revenus alors que le groupe de 16-25 ans est celui qui présente les plus bas revenus. Cette recherche démontre que l'expérience de la migration peut être très différente selon les points d'origine et de destination. Toutefois, les caractéristiques personnelles telles que le sexe, l’âge et le niveau d’éducation ont un impact significatif sur le revenu. / Studies on the economic integration of migrants in Canada have so far been oriented on international migrants. This paper is focusing on the results and characteristics of migrants who migrated within their own province between 1996 and 2007. In contrast to the difficulties of economic integration of international migrants, our research shows that intraprovincial migrants integrate into their new environment at an economic level slightly higher than the host population. The results obtained using the longitudinal component of the Survey of Labour and Income Dynamics (SLID) reveal that intraprovincial migrants have a median annual income of 38 017$, an income slightly higher than that of non-migrants. Our study demonstrates that personal characteristics of migrants are much more important determinants of income. Men earn on average just over 10 000$ more per year than women, and this, among both migrants and non-migrants. The level of education is also a significant variable of income. The difference between the median income of migrants who have completed high school and those who have completed university is nearly 12 000$. Finally, we note that the age group 46-55 is the one that has the highest income while the age group 16-25 is the one with the lowest income. This research shows that the experience of migration can be very different depending on the point of origin and destination. However, personal characteristics such as gender, age and education level have a significant impact on income.

Les études effectuées sur l’intégration économique des migrants au Canada ont jusqu’ici été réservées aux migrants internationaux. Le présent document fait état des résultats et des caractéristiques des migrants ayant effectué une migration à l’intérieur de leur propre province entre 1996 et 2007. En opposition aux difficultés d’intégration économique des migrants internationaux, notre recherche démontre que les migrants intraprovinciaux s’intègrent dans leur nouvel environnement à un niveau économique légèrement supérieur à la population d’accueil. Les résultats obtenus à l’aide du volet longitudinal de l’Enquête sur la dynamique du travail et du revenu (EDTR) dévoilent que les migrants intraprovinciaux ont un revenu annuel médian de 38 017$, soit un revenu légèrement supérieur à celui des non-migrants. Notre étude permet toutefois de constater que les caractéristiques personnelles des migrants sont des déterminants bien plus importants du revenu. Les hommes gagnent en moyenne un peu plus de 10 000$ de plus par année que les femmes, et ce, autant chez les migrants que chez les non-migrants. Le niveau d’éducation est aussi une variable significative du revenu. L’écart entre le revenu médian des migrants ayant complété le secondaire et ceux ayant un niveau universitaire est de près de 12 000$. Finalement, on remarque que le groupe d’âge des 46-55 ans est celui qui affiche les plus hauts revenus alors que le groupe de 16-25 ans est celui qui présente les plus bas revenus. Cette recherche démontre que l'expérience de la migration peut être très différente selon les points d'origine et de destination. Toutefois, les caractéristiques personnelles telles que le sexe, l’âge et le niveau d’éducation ont un impact significatif sur le revenu. / Studies on the economic integration of migrants in Canada have so far been oriented on international migrants. This paper is focusing on the results and characteristics of migrants who migrated within their own province between 1996 and 2007. In contrast to the difficulties of economic integration of international migrants, our research shows that intraprovincial migrants integrate into their new environment at an economic level slightly higher than the host population. The results obtained using the longitudinal component of the Survey of Labour and Income Dynamics (SLID) reveal that intraprovincial migrants have a median annual income of 38 017$, an income slightly higher than that of non-migrants. Our study demonstrates that personal characteristics of migrants are much more important determinants of income. Men earn on average just over 10 000$ more per year than women, and this, among both migrants and non-migrants. The level of education is also a significant variable of income. The difference between the median income of migrants who have completed high school and those who have completed university is nearly 12 000$. Finally, we note that the age group 46-55 is the one that has the highest income while the age group 16-25 is the one with the lowest income. This research shows that the experience of migration can be very different depending on the point of origin and destination. However, personal characteristics such as gender, age and education level have a significant impact on income.

Within this work, bonding technologies based upon the alloying of gallium with other metals to assemble semiconductor substrates for the possible application of encapsulation and 3D-integration of micro systems and devices have been researched. Motivated by the important demand to achieve low temperature processes, methods with bonding temperatures below 200°C were investigated. Necessary technologies like the deposition of gallium as thin film and subsequent micro structuring have been developed. The alloying between gallium and gold as well as gallium and copper was analysed in detail. A good correlation between the elemental composition of the interface and its mechanical and electrical parameters was established, particularly regarding its thermal dependence. It emerged that in case of combination Au/Ga Kirkendall void are extensively formed whereby serious problems with mechanical strength as well as hermeticity emerged. In case of Cu/Ga, this problem is existent to a much lesser degree; it was possible to create hermetic tight bonds. For the necessary pre-treatment of copper, several methods could be successfully demonstrated. In summary, the development of bonding technologies based upon metallic interfaces that exhibit electric conductance, high strength and hermetic seal could be demonstrated. / In dieser Arbeit werden Bondverfahren zum Fügen von Halbleitersubstraten für mögliche Anwendungen für die Verkapselung und 3D-Integration von Bauelementen der Mikrosystemtechnik erforscht, die auf der Legierungsbildung von Gallium mit anderen Metallen beruhen. Motiviert von der zentralen Anforderung an niedrige Prozesstemperaturen wurden Methoden mit Fügetemperaturen deutlich unter 200°C untersucht. Dafür nötige Technologien zum Abscheiden von Gallium als Dünnschicht und das anschließende Mikrostrukturieren wurden entwickelt. Die Legierungsbildung zwischen Gallium und Gold sowie zwischen Gallium und Kupfer wurde im experimentell im Detail analysiert. Dabei konnte eine gute Korrelation zwischen der stofflichen Zusammensetzung und den mechanischen bzw. elektrischen Parametern der Zwischenschicht, auch und insbesondere hinsichtlich ihrer Temperaturabhängigkeit gefunden werden. Es stellte sich heraus, dass im Falle der Kombination Au/Ga Kirkendall Hohlräume in einer Menge entstehen, die zu erheblichen Problemen bezüglich mechanischer Festigkeit und Dichtheit der Fügeverbindung führen. Bei der Materialkombination Cu/Ga hingegen trat dieses Problem nur begrenzt auf; es war möglich hermetisch dichte Verbindungen herzustellen. Für die bei Kupfer nötige Vorbehandlung wurden mehrere Methoden erfolgreich getestet. Insgesamt konnte die Entwicklung von Fügetechnologien gezeigt werden, die metallische Zwischenschichten verwenden, elektrisch leitfähig sind, sehr gute Festigkeiten aufweisen und hermetisch dicht sind.

Multi-chip integration with emerging technologies such as a 3D IC stack or 2.5D interposer is primarily enabled by the off-chip interconnections. The I/O density, speed and bandwidth requirements for emerging mobile and high-performance systems are projected to drive the interconnection pitch to less than 20 microns by 2015. A new class of low-temperature, low-pressure, high-throughput, cost-effective and maufacturable technologies are needed to enable such fine-pitch interconnections. A range of interconnection technologies are being pursued to achieve these fine-pitch interconnections, most notably direct Cu-Cu interconnections and copper pillars with solder caps. Direct Cu-Cu bonding has been a target in the semiconductor industry due to the high electrical and thermal conductivity of copper, its high current-carrying capability and compatibility with CMOS BEOL processes. However, stringent coplanarity requirements and high temperature and high pressure bonding needed for assembly have been the major barriers for this technology. Copper-solder interconnection technology has therefore become the main workhouse for off-chip interconnections, and has recently been demonstrated at pitches as low as 40 microns. However, the current interconnection approaches using copper-solder structures are not scalable to finer feature sizes due to electromigration, and reliability issues arising with decreased solder content. Solid Liquid Inter-Diffusion (SLID) bonding is a promising solution to achieve ultra-fine-pitch and ultra-short interconnections with a copper-solder system, as it relies on the conversion of the entire solder volume into thermally-stable and highly electromigration-resistant intermetallics with no residual solder. Such a complete conversion of solders to stable intermetallics, however, relies on a long assembly time or a subsequent post-annealing process. To achieve pitches lower than 30 micron pitch, this research aims to study two ultra-short copper-solder interconnection approaches: (i) copper pillar and solder cap technology, and (ii) a novel technology which will enable interconnections with improved electrical performance by fast and complete conversion of solders to stable intermetallics (IMCs) using Solid Liquid Diffusion (SLID) bonding approach. SLID bonding, being a liquid state diffusion process, combined with a novel, alternate layered copper-solder bump structure, leads to higher diffusion rates and a much faster conversion of solder to IMCs. Moreover this assembly bonding is done at a much lower temperature and pressure as compared to that used for Cu-Cu interconnections. FEM was used to study the effect of various assembly and bump-design characteristics on the post-assembly stress distribution in the ultra-short copper-solder joints, and design guidelines were evolved based on these results. Test vehicles, based on these guidelines, were designed and fabricated at 50 and 100 micron pitch for experimental analysis. The bumping process was optimized, and the effect of current density on the solder composition, bump-height non-uniformity and surface morphology of the deposited solder were studied. Ultra-short interconnections formed using the copper pillar and solder cap technology were characterized. A novel multi-layered copper-solder stack was designed based on diffusion modeling to optimize the bump stack configuration for high-throughput conversion to stable Cu3Sn intermetallic. Following this modeling, a novel bumping process with alternating copper and tin plating layers to predesigned thicknesses was then developed to fabricate the interconnection structure. Alternate layers of copper and tin were electroplated on a blanket wafer, as a first demonstration of this stack-technology. Dies with copper-solder test structures were bonded using SLID bonding to validate the formation of stable intermetallics.

Within this work, bonding technologies based upon the alloying of gallium with other metals to assemble semiconductor substrates for the possible application of encapsulation and 3D-integration of micro systems and devices have been researched. Motivated by the important demand to achieve low temperature processes, methods with bonding temperatures below 200°C were investigated. Necessary technologies like the deposition of gallium as thin film and subsequent micro structuring have been developed. The alloying between gallium and gold as well as gallium and copper was analysed in detail. A good correlation between the elemental composition of the interface and its mechanical and electrical parameters was established, particularly regarding its thermal dependence. It emerged that in case of combination Au/Ga Kirkendall void are extensively formed whereby serious problems with mechanical strength as well as hermeticity emerged. In case of Cu/Ga, this problem is existent to a much lesser degree; it was possible to create hermetic tight bonds. For the necessary pre-treatment of copper, several methods could be successfully demonstrated. In summary, the development of bonding technologies based upon metallic interfaces that exhibit electric conductance, high strength and hermetic seal could be demonstrated. / In dieser Arbeit werden Bondverfahren zum Fügen von Halbleitersubstraten für mögliche Anwendungen für die Verkapselung und 3D-Integration von Bauelementen der Mikrosystemtechnik erforscht, die auf der Legierungsbildung von Gallium mit anderen Metallen beruhen. Motiviert von der zentralen Anforderung an niedrige Prozesstemperaturen wurden Methoden mit Fügetemperaturen deutlich unter 200°C untersucht. Dafür nötige Technologien zum Abscheiden von Gallium als Dünnschicht und das anschließende Mikrostrukturieren wurden entwickelt. Die Legierungsbildung zwischen Gallium und Gold sowie zwischen Gallium und Kupfer wurde im experimentell im Detail analysiert. Dabei konnte eine gute Korrelation zwischen der stofflichen Zusammensetzung und den mechanischen bzw. elektrischen Parametern der Zwischenschicht, auch und insbesondere hinsichtlich ihrer Temperaturabhängigkeit gefunden werden. Es stellte sich heraus, dass im Falle der Kombination Au/Ga Kirkendall Hohlräume in einer Menge entstehen, die zu erheblichen Problemen bezüglich mechanischer Festigkeit und Dichtheit der Fügeverbindung führen. Bei der Materialkombination Cu/Ga hingegen trat dieses Problem nur begrenzt auf; es war möglich hermetisch dichte Verbindungen herzustellen. Für die bei Kupfer nötige Vorbehandlung wurden mehrere Methoden erfolgreich getestet. Insgesamt konnte die Entwicklung von Fügetechnologien gezeigt werden, die metallische Zwischenschichten verwenden, elektrisch leitfähig sind, sehr gute Festigkeiten aufweisen und hermetisch dicht sind.

Avec la vague des départs à la retraite amorcée par la génération des baby-boomers, le marché du travail canadien traversera inéluctablement une période de transition. Le vide laissé par ces départs obligera de nombreuses industries à réajuster leur tir afin de ne pas être secouées par de trop fortes turbulences. À cet effet, l’impact des retraites n’aura pas la même ampleur pour chacune des branches d’activité. S’appuyant sur les données longitudinales de l’Enquête sur la dynamique du travail et du revenu de 1993 à 2010, cette recherche analyse les tendances au fil du temps et entre les industries en regard des départs d’emploi de carrière. Une attention particulière est aussi portée aux emplois de transition selon le secteur d’activité, afin de déterminer si cette pratique peut amoindrir les répercussions des départs d’emploi de carrière. Les résultats montrent que l’intensité des départs d’emploi de carrière s’accroit au cours de la période considérée et que d’importantes variations existent entre les travailleurs des diverses catégories d’industries examinées. L’industrie des services professionnels, scientifiques et techniques affiche la plus faible proportion de travailleurs ayant quitté un emploi de carrière (26 %). À l’autre extrémité du spectre, les travailleurs du secteur de l’hébergement et des services de restauration présentent la plus forte probabilité d’effectuer un départ d’emploi de carrière (47 %). Au chapitre des emplois de transition, les travailleurs en provenance l’industrie de la construction montrent la plus forte propension à oeuvrer au sein d’un tel type d’emploi. Si certaines industries se démarquent des autres, cela s’explique surtout en raison du comportement différentiel des travailleurs les plus âgés (55 à 64 ans). / With the Baby-boom generation entering upon a retirement wave, the Canadian labour force will ineluctably go through a transition period. Those departures will leave a vacuum that will force many industries to readjust in order to avoid heavy turbulences. The impact of the retirement wave will not have the same impact for each of the industries. Using longitudinal data from the Survey of Labour and Income Dynamics for years 1993 to 2010, this study analyzes trends over time and across industries regarding workers leaving a career job. A particular attention will also be paid to bridge jobs by industry, in order to determine if this type of work may lessen the effects of the loss of many career jobs. The results show that workers are increasingly leaving career jobs during the period under review and that considerable variations exist between workers of various industries. The industry of Professional, Scientific and Technical Services shows the smallest proportion of workers that have left a career job (26%). Conversely, the highest probability of leaving a career job was recorded among workers of the Accommodation and Food Services industry (47%). Regarding bridge jobs, workers coming from the Construction industry have the greatest propensity to start such a type of work after leaving a career job. If some industries stand out from all the others, this is largely attributable to the distinct behaviour of the eldest workers (55 to 64 years old).

Alloys of titanium are highly preferred materials for their excellent strength to weight ratio but the tribological issues while using them has been posing challenging issues for the tribological analyst, which are still areas of active research. Ti-6Al-4V (Ti64) is the most popular alloy of titanium and our understanding of the fundamental mechanisms of wear and friction of this alloy is still not complete. Previous investigations related to the tribology of these alloys have suggested a synergistic effect of plastic deformation and tribo-oxidation. The present investigation described in this thesis explores the existence of one more mode, namely the formation of a Mechanically Mixed Layer (MML). The thesis examines the effect of these modes one by one and analyses the synergistic effect of these mechanisms, and also the effect of heat generation during sliding. The tribological condition existing have been varied by doing wear experiments using Ti64 pins sliding against alumina and SS316L (controls MML), diameter of pin (expected to control debris entrapment and thus MML formation), tribo-system (horizontal disc Vs vertical disc, which is also expected to control debris entrapment and thus MML formation), environment (ambient and vacuum, expected to control tribo-oxidation) and sliding speed (expected to control interface temperature and thus plastic deformation mechanism and tribo-oxidations). The division of the main chapters has been so made to present the findings spread over Chapters 5-8, with each chapter dealing with specific tribological test conditions. In each chapter, results from the tribological experimentations in the form of wear and friction are presented, together with the characterization methods which throw light into the tribological mechanisms. These characterization methods include Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDAX), X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) and Electron probe micro-analyzer (EPMA). Wherever possible, the debris collected from the experiments have been subjected to morphological and detailed chemical analysis, and a feature which has not been explored much in detail by tribological investigators, but having a promising potential. Experimental results from tribological testing when Ti64 pins slides against two different materials (Alumina and SS316L) in pin-on-disc tribometers under two different environmental conditions (ambient /vacuum) are analyzed. Each set of experiments looks at two different effects - (1) the effect of sliding speed on the tribological behavior while using a pin of a fixed diameter (all other parameters remaining the same) and (2) the effect of using pins of different diameters for a given set of parameters. Three different pin-sizes were employed (2.1 mm. 4.6 mm and 6.6 mm), the normal loads on these pins were changed according to the pin-size used so that all experiments were done at the same contact pressure (2.8 MPa). By performing the experiments against the ceramic disc (alumina) under vacuum conditions, the effect of this plastic deformation is studied in isolation because the possibility of the Tribo Chemical Reaction (TCR) due to oxidation is inhibited and no MML was found to be formed due to poor compatibility of mixing between the metallic pin and the ceramic disc. For the low speeds/strain rates experiments, the effect of plastic deformation as influenced by the adiabatic shear banding is seen to influence wear which progressively changes to temperature induced plastic deformation and wear. The situation is found to be different when we change the environmental conditions from vacuum to ambient for the same tribo-combination. The tests shows a reduction in wear rate with speed, and this is due to the oxide formations due to TCR as confirmed from the SEM/EDAX characterization. In contrast to previous experiments under vacuum, these permit the effect of TCR also to influence the tribological behavior. The scenario changes when the alumina disc is replaced by a metallic one (SS316L) and tests carried out in vacuum, as the MML was found to be formed with this tribo-pair. Because of the mutual affinity of the materials in the tribo-pair, the wear damage is severe in this case and the flash temperatures crossing the phase transition temperature (~880oC) for Ti64 at high speeds. The growth of the β phase with increase in the sliding (temperature) conditions is captured from the XRD spectra of the wear debris. Synergistic effect of all these mechanisms (plastic deformation, MML, and TCR) is permitted by conducting experiments with Ti64 pin against stainless steel and in ambient conditions. A comparison of the tribological response by presenting results when experiments are run over a range of speeds while using different sized pins under ambient conditions (and compared with similar results in vacuum) while using SS316L disc serve to demarcate the differences in the wear modes which are active/inactive depending on the tribological conditions. In addition a study incorporating the effect of frictional heating and its influence on the tribological phenomena is analyzed. Main conclusions from the thesis are: The wear resistance of Ti64 alloy when sliding against SS316L is found to be influenced by Strain Rate Response (SRR), Tribo Oxidation (TO), Mechanically Mixed Layer (MML) and the prevailing heat flux conditions at the contact. The wear rates were found to decrease marginally with sliding speeds (strain rates) up to a certain speed, which is ascribed to reduction in adiabatic shear band intensity with increase in strain rate. Adiabatic Shear Band (ASB), which allows easy crack propagation, intensity reduces as temperature of deformation of Ti64 is increased. From the results it can be confirmed that the propensity for formation of MML depends on compatibility of the disc and the pin material. The contribution due to of entrapment and retention of debris in the contact zone also would influence formation of the MML. The effect of frictional heating plays an influential role as it can affect the factors (TO, ASB, MML) governing the tribological response. The sensitivity to temperature, which is a marked feature of this alloy in undergoing softening, as confirmed by previous researchers, is reflected in the experimental results. Since the main factor that triggers the micro-structural instability is the energy dissipation that accompanies deformation more fundamental research which can improve the thermal transport properties of this alloy, would be the future scope of work of this thesis. Also, the unique composition of the MML which offers high wear resistance under specific operating conditions opens up the possibility of new such alloy formulations, production routes and techniques which should improve the tribological response of this alloy.

Advances in wide-bandgap semiconductor devices have increased the allowable operating temperature of power electronic systems. High-temperature devices can benefit applications such as renewable energy, electric vehicles, and space-based power electronics that currently require bulky cooling systems for silicon power devices. Cooling systems can typically be reduced in size or removed by adopting wide-bandgap semiconductor devices, such as silicon carbide. However, to do this, semiconductor device packaging with high reliability at high temperatures is necessary. Transient liquid phase (TLP) die-attach has shown in literature to be a promising bonding technique for this packaging need. In this work TLP has been comprehensively investigated and characterized to assess its viability for high-temperature power electronics applications. The reliability and durability of TLP die-attach was extensively investigated utilizing electrical resistivity measurement as an indicator of material diffusion in gold-indium TLP samples. Criteria of ensuring diffusive stability were also developed. Samples were fabricated by material deposition on glass substrates with variant Au–In compositions but identical barrier layers. They were stressed with thermal cycling to simulate their operating conditions then characterized and compared. Excess indium content in the die-attach was shown to have poor reliability due to material diffusion through barrier layers while samples containing suitable indium content proved reliable throughout the thermal cycling process. This was confirmed by electrical resistivity measurement, EDS, FIB, and SEM characterization. Thermal and mechanical characterization of TLP die-attached samples was also performed to gain a newfound understanding of the relationship between TLP design parameters and die-attach properties. Samples with a SiC diode chip TLP bonded to a copper metalized silicon nitride iv substrate were made using several different values of fabrication parameters such as gold and indium thickness, Au–In ratio, and bonding pressure. The TLP bonds were then characterized for die-attach voiding, shear strength, and thermal impedance. It was found that TLP die-attach offers high average shear force strength of 22.0 kgf and a low average thermal impedance of 0.35 K/W from the device junction to the substrate. The influence of various fabrication parameters on the bond characteristics were also compared, providing information necessary for implementing TLP die-attach into power electronic modules for high-temperature applications. The outcome of the investigation on TLP bonding techniques was incorporated into a new power module design utilizing TLP bonding. A full half-bridge inverter power module for low-power space applications has been designed and analyzed with extensive finite element thermomechanical modeling. In summary, TLP die-attach has investigated to confirm its reliability and to understand how to design effective TLP bonds, this information has been used to design a new high-temperature power electronic module.