Watershed models are powerful tools for simulating different scenarios to understand the impact of management practices and are used to support and guide decision-making. However, there are often challenges and limitations to using watershed models in some areas of watershed modeling; 1) model calibration in the areas with data limitations; 2) acquiring complete weather data that accurately reflect watershed model responses; 3) accurate representation of manure operation in watershed models. This dissertation addresses each of the aforementioned challenges using new approaches and tools in three studies with the main objective of achieving a better prediction of water quality and quantity and enhancing watershed models. Chapter 2 presents a method (multi-basin calibration (MBC)) to estimate watershed model parameters that lack long-term streamflow records. In the MBC method, first, the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) models are initialized individually for several similar neighboring watersheds with a short period of measured streamflow. Then, we aggregate the simulated and observed flows from each initialization with short histories to generate a combined observed-simulated streamflow record that is longer than the initial length of each individual member in order to increase the information content. The Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency (NSE) from this merged time series was used as the basis for calibrating using a differential evolution algorithm. To evaluate the MBC, SWAT models for three newly instrumented USGS gages in Lake Champlain Basin of Vermont, USA, were compared to the commonly used similarity-based regionalization (SBR) approach. Results demonstrate that short periods of hydrological measurement from multiple locations in a basin can represent a system similar to long-term measurements. Chapter 3 develops a method to generate a complete weather data time series with the integration of multiple Global Historical Climatology Network (GHCN) stations and to assess the benefit of much higher density, lower reliability precipitation measurements from private citizens collected by the Community Collaborative Rain, Hail, and Snow (CoCoRaHS) network data that was integrated into the GHCN. To evaluate the performance of the methodology, generated weather data is used to force the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) models of 21 United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)-Agricultural Research Service (ARS)-Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS)-Conservation Effects Assessment Project (CEAP) watersheds to simulate daily streamflow. The results demonstrated that integration of multiple GHCN stations including higher-density, but perhaps lower-quality weather data can enhance model performance. A comparison with published SWAT model results further corroborated improved model performance using newly combined GHCN data. Chapter 4 develops a hybrid SWAT model, SWAT-Dairy, to accurately represent the impact of manure operation on nutrient transport. The SWAT-Dairy model incorporates process-based livestock routines, developed in the R platform, which quantify daily manure production, stored manure, daily total nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P), organic and mineral N and P, and dynamic manure nutrient fractions based on animal characteristics, feed characteristics, and environmental conditions. Outputs are then used in SWAT to simulate the impact of livestock manure production. The new model, with simulated manure application management, is applied to a farm in the Little Otter Creek Basin in Vermont, US. Subbasin- and farm-level N and P losses from manure management using the new model were compared for different feed management scenarios. / Doctor of Philosophy / In the past few decades, watershed management has become more challenging due to rapid population growth, climate change, and agricultural practices. In order to achieve better watershed management strategies, it is essential to understand the complex interaction between different biological, physical, and chemical processes occurring in the watershed. Watershed models are useful tools that help scientists and engineers to understand and predict how climate and land-use changes and agricultural management practices affect different components of a watershed system. While watershed models have many advantages, they are often limited by challenges and obstacles, such as model parameter estimations in the areas with limited measured streamflow data, acquiring complete and accurate weather data, and explicit representation of animal management impacts on water quality in manure applications. This dissertation addresses the challenges mentioned earlier by developing new approaches and methods that improve water quality and quantity using watershed models. A long record of measured streamflow data is necessary for watershed models to accurately represent watershed systems and estimate the parameters that cannot be directly measured. However, many watersheds worldwide are not monitored or are newly instrumented with a short period of recorded data. Chapter 2 introduces a new approach (multi basin calibration (MBC)) that integrates short periods of recorded data from several watersheds to provide a similar representation of the watershed system as long-term records. MBC was compared with a commonly used method that requires long recorded streamflow data from a neighboring watershed. The results showed that MBC improved model results and captured hydrological processes better for the watershed with a short period of recorded data than the traditionally used method. Obtaining accurate weather data for a watershed model can also be challenging since land-based weather stations often contain missing data. In recent years, hydrological modelers and researchers have access to the much higher density of weather measurements from private citizens that collect data with inexpensive equipment. However, no study has evaluated the benefits of using much higher-density data from private citizens for watershed modeling. Chapter 3 presents a new methodology to acquire complete weather data time series with the integration of all weather stations, including higher density private citizen-based measurements. Then the weather data were used to force watershed models of 21 watersheds across the United States. The results showed that the new methodology provides weather data that reflect the watershed model response with satisfactory performance ratings in 18 out of 21 watersheds. Lastly, chapter 4 develops a dairy model and integrates it into one of the most commonly used watershed models, the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT), to investigate how different farm management scenarios impact manure production and nutrient contents as well as their consequent effect on water quality during manure application on farm fields.

L'étude du transport fluvial des matières en suspension (MES) et du carbone organique dans les rivières du monde informe sur le taux d'érosion des continents, le cycle du carbone et la contribution du carbone terrestre à l'océan. Les objectifs du travail sont, d'une part, de décrire, analyser et quantifier la dynamique des MES et du carbone organique, particulaire (COP) et dissous (COD), lors des périodes de crue, d'évaluer la contribution des événements de crue sur les flux annuels et, d'autre part, de quantifier ces flux sur le long terme par une approche de modélisation agro-hydrologique. L'étude expérimentale est basée sur l'échantillonnage à l'exutoire des données par un prélèvement manuel et automatique dans un bassin versant agricole de 1 110 km2 du Sud-ouest de la France, la Save, un affluent de la Garonne, de Janvier 2007 à Juin 2009. Concernant l'approche de modélisation, le modèle SWAT 2005 (Soil and Water Assessment Tool) est utilisé pour décrire le transport et quantifier le flux des MES et du COP sur du long terme (1999-2008) intégrant les données hydro-climatiques, l'occupation du sol et les itinéraires techniques des pratiques agricoles dans ce bassin. Les résultats montrent la forte variabilité temporelle de la dynamique de transport des MES, COP et COD durant les différentes crues saisonnières. Ces flux sont notamment transportés au printemps grâce aux fréquences importantes des crues et à la durée des crues. La quantification de flux (MES, COP et COD) pendant les crues contribuant aux flux annuel à été estimé. Le flux annuel des MES en 2007 est de 16 614 tonnes, représentant 15 t km-2 (85% du flux annuel transporté en crue pour 16% de la durée annuelle) et il est de 77 960 tonnes représentant 70 t km-2 en 2008 (95% du flux annuel transporté en crue pour 20% de la durée annuelle). Le transport du COP et COD durant les crues est respectivement de 76% et 62% du flux total pour 22% de la durée totale (Janvier 2008 à Juin 2009). Les flux de COP et COD exportés de la Save sont de 3091 tonnes et 1238 tonnes, représentant respectivement, 1,8 t km-2 an-1 et 0,7 t km-2 an-1. En utilisant des analyses statistiques, les facteurs hydro-climatiques qui conditionnent la dynamique du transport montrent de bonnes corrélations entre la précipitation totale, le débit de crue, le flux d'eau et les flux de MES, COP et COD. De plus, la dynamique des MES, COP et COD pour les différents crues a été examinée, en utilisant l'analyse des hystérésis. Les résultats du modèle agro-hydrologique SWAT montrent la forte variabilité temporelle des flux annuels de MES et COP (1999-2008). Le flux annuel de MES varie de 4 766 tonnes à 123 000 tonnes, représentant un flux spécifique de 48 t km-2 an-1 et le flux annuel de POC varie de 120 tonnes à 3 100 tonnes, représentant un flux spécifique de 1,2 t km-2 an-1. La régression entre le flux d'eau annuel et le flux de MES simulé a été établie et les zones potentielles d'érosion sont également identifiées par modélisation pour le bassin versant de la Save.

Abstract The ultimate goal in the South was to end segregation, but nationwide equal-rights were the common goal of all African-Americans. Nonviolent protests and over aggressive police departments became the norm within the African-American community. Understated in the history of the Civil Rights Era is the role of armed resistance and Black Nationalism. Marcus Garvey, Stokely Carmichael, Huey P. Newton, and Malcolm X were Black Nationalists that led the charge of Black Nationalism worldwide. The Deacons of Defense, the Lowndes County Freedom Organization (LCFO) and the Black Panther Party for Self Defense transformed the social makeup of the country and became major causes of the militarization of police departments across the United States. Many police departments across America began to create SWAT teams and use military-style weaponry following an outbreak of riots and the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. In New Orleans, Louisiana, stand-offs and shoot-outs with Black Panther members warranted a call for military backup, but it was the acts of Mark James Robert Essex that totally militarized the New Orleans Police Department.

<p>Ecohydrological models are extensively used to evaluate land use, land management and climate change impacts on hydrology and in-stream water quality conditions. The scale at which these models operate influences the complexity of processes incorporated within the models. For instance, a large scale hydrological model such as Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) that runs on a daily scale may ignore the sub-daily scale in-stream processes. The key processes affecting in-stream solute transport such as advection, dispersion and transient storage (dead zone) exchange can have considerable effect on the predicted stream solute concentrations, especially for localized studies. To represent realistic field conditions, it is therefore required to modify the in-stream water quality algorithms of SWAT by including these additional processes. Existing reach-scale solute transport models like OTIS (One-dimensional Transport with Inflow and Storage) considers these processes but excludes the actual biochemical reactions occurring in the stream and models nutrient uptake using an empirical first-order decay equation. Alternatively, comprehensive stream water quality models like QUAL2E (The Enhanced Stream Water Quality Model) incorporates actual biochemical reactions but neglects the transient storage exchange component which is crucial is predicting the peak and timing of solute concentrations. In this study, these two popular models (OTIS and QUAL2E) are merged to integrate all essential solute transport processes into a single in-stream water quality model known as ‘Enhanced OTIS model’. A generalized model with an improved graphical user interface was developed on MATLAB platform that performed reasonably well for both experimental data and previously published data (R²=0.76). To incorporate this model into large-scale hydrological models, it was necessary to find an alternative to estimate transient storage parameters, which are otherwise derived through calibration using experimental tracer tests. Through a meta-analysis approach, simple regression models were therefore developed for dispersion coefficient (D), storage zone area (A_s) and storage exchange coefficient (α) by relating them to easily obtainable hydraulic characteristics such as discharge, velocity, flow width and flow depth. For experimental data from two study sites, breakthrough curves and storage potential of conservative tracers were predicted with good accuracy (R²>0.5) by using the new regression equations. These equations were hence recommended as a tool for obtaining preliminary and approximate estimates of D, A_s and α when reach-specific calibration is unfeasible. </p> <p> </p> <p>The existing water quality module in SWAT was replaced with the newly developed ‘Enhanced OTIS model’ along with the regression equations for storage parameters. Water quality predictions using the modified SWAT model (Mir-SWAT) for a study catchment in Germany showed that the improvements in process representation yields better results for dissolved oxygen (DO), phosphate and Chlorophyll-a. While the existing model simulated extreme low values of DO, Mir-SWAT improved these values with a 0.11 increase in R² value between modeled and measured values. No major improvement was observed for nitrate loads but modeled phosphate peak loads were reduced to be much closer to measured values with Mir-SWAT model. A qualitative analysis on Chl-<i>a</i> concentrations also indicated that average and maximum monthly Chl-<i>a</i> values were better predicted with Mir-SWAT when compared to SWAT model, especially for winter months. The newly developed in-stream water quality model is expected to act as a stand alone model or coupled with larger models to improve the representation of solute transport processes and nutrient uptake in these models. The improvements made to SWAT model will increase the model confidence and widen its extent of applicability to short-term and localized studies that require understanding of fine-scale solute transport dynamics. </p>

Sub-Saharan Africa is today facing a big challenge regarding food deficiency and water scarcity due to climate change. One of these countries is Rwanda, a small landlocked country in the middle of Africa. Rwanda strongly depend on agriculture, both in the aspect of reducing poverty and hunger but also because their economy security depend on it. Because of increasingly fluctuating rainfalls their agriculture becomes more dependent on irrigation and the availability to water resources. To investigate how the climate change will affect the amount of water resources in the coming decades, this study is focusing on the watershed and marshland of Muvumba P8 in Nyagatare, Rwanda. A hydrological model was created, in a software called Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT), with soil, land use and slope maps for the watershed. Calibrating the model was done with help of Climate Forecast System Reanalysis (CFSR) data and run for nine different climate model datasets. An uncertainty had to be taken into account regarding both the measured local data and the downloaded data. To be able to compare the amount of water resources and the irrigation requirements for the rice crop the farmers were growing on the marshland, the crop water requirements for rice was estimated with FAO’s program called CROPWAT. The irrigation system on the marshland allows a double cropping of rice every year and consist of a system depending on elevation differences to create natural fall. There was three reservoirs along the marshland but to limit the project, only the first reservoir was taken into account. This was complemented with existing data and field survey. Six out of nine climate models showed a decrease in median discharge over the coming 30 years compared to the CFSR historical median discharge. This means that less water in general will reach the outlet of the watershed in the years to come. At the same time all climate models indicate an increase in irrigation requirements for the rice crops. The seasons are probably going to change, a longer and drier season between June and August and a rainier season between September and November are projected.

<p>Land and water resources degradation are the major problems on the Ethiopian highlands. Poor land use practices and improper management systems have played a significant role in causing high soil erosion rates, sediment transport and loss of agricultural nutrients. So far limited meas-ures have been taken to combat the problems. In this study a physically based watershed model, SWAT2005 was applied to the Northern Highlands of Ethiopia for modelling of the hydrology and sediment yield. The main objective of this study was to test the performance and feasibility of SWAT2005 model to examine the influence of topography, land use, soil and climatic condi-tion on streamflows, soil erosion and sediment yield. The model was calibrated and validated on four tributaries of Lake Tana as well as Anjeni watershed using SUFI-2, GLUE and ParaSol algo-rithms. SWAT and GIS based decision support system (MCE analysis) were also used to identify the most erosion prone areas in the Lake Tana Basin. Streamflows are more sensitive to the hy-drological response unites definition thresholds than subbasin discretization. Prediction of sedi-ment yield is highly sensitive to subbasin size and slope discretization. Baseflow is an important component of the total discharge within the study area that contributes more than the surface runoff. There is a good agreement between the measured and simulated flows and sediment yields with higher values of coefficients of determination and Nash Sutcliffe efficiency. The an-nual average measured sediment yield in Anjeni watershed was 24.6 tonnes/ha. The annual aver-age simulated sediment yield was 27.8 and 29.5 tonnes/ha for calibration and validation periods, respectively. The SWAT model indicated that 18.5 % of the Lake Tana Basin is erosion potential areas. Whereas the MCE result indicated that 25.5 % of the basin are erosion potential areas. The calibrated model can be used for further analysis of the effect of climate and land use change as well as other different management scenarios on streamflows and soil erosion. The result of the study could help different stakeholders to plan and implement appropriate soil and water conser-vation strategies.</p>

The main purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of alternative cropping systems on farm net returns, and nitrate-N and sediment yields in Thomas Brook Watershed (TBW). The study involved integrated bio-physical and economic optimization modelling. Crop yield and nitrate-N pollution response functions were estimated and then used in trade-off analysis between farm returns and environmental quality improvement. Five crop rotation systems were evaluated for seven fertilizer levels under conventional tillage (CT) and no-till systems (NT). Nitrate-N leached, as well as estimated maximum economic rate of N (MERN) fertilizer level and marginal abatement costs depended on crop type, rotation system, and tillage type. The most cost effective cropping systems that met restrictions on Health Canada maximum limit on nitrate-N in water included corn-corn-corn-alfalfa-alfalfa under NT for corn-based cropping systems, potato-winter wheat-carrot-corn under CT for vegetable horticulture-based and potato-barley-winter wheat-potato-corn under NT for potato-based cropping systems.

Organizational scholars have long been interested in organizations which exemplify high reliability. While such organizational studies have provided valuable clues to the ways in which such organizations form and function, this paper argues that a more nuanced study of high reliability processes within team contexts is warranted. This study focuses on organizational teams which are faced with the challenges of maintaining high levels of reliability. Of particular interest is how teams manage adverse events which disrupt the team's process and how they make adaptations immediately to restore their functionality. In my dissertation, I: (1) explore the existing literature surrounding high reliability organization and resilience, (2) present a qualitative analysis of Special Weapons and Tactics (SWAT) teams to explore and identify factors surrounding adaptation within the critical moment, and (3) discuss the implications of these factors in the theory and research surrounding high-reliability teams. The findings of this study find strong connection with the work of Weick and serve to advance and clarify previous characteristics associated with high reliability organizing; however, by using the small group as the unit of analysis for the study additions to concepts traditionally associated with high reliability organizing can be noted: (1) controlling variability during team function, (2) accepting the value of the unexpected, (3) continuous forward motion, and (4) the role of tacit and explicit knowledge.

Das Miandam-Untersuchungsgebiet (35° 1′- 5′ N, 72° 30′-37′ E) liegt in der Swat-Region der Provinz Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (ehemals North West Frontier Province) im nördlichen Pakistan. Die vorliegende Arbeit berücksichtigt sowohl ethnobotanische und pflanzensoziologische Aspekte als auch die Pflanzenartendiversität innerhalb des Gebietes. Aufgrund der hohen Habitatvielfalt weist das Miandam-Gebiet einen großen Reichtum von Medizinalpflanzen auf. Die im Rahmen der Arbeit durchgeführte ethnobotanische Studie dokumentiert das Vorkommen der Medizinalpflanzen sowie deren Nutzung in der Region. Weiterhin wurden die durch Sammlerpräferierten Lebensräume bestimmt und evaluiert inwiefern die Heilpflanzen durch Sammlung und Habitatzerstörung bedroht werden. Insgesamt wurden 106 traditionelle Heilpflanzen aus 54 Pflanzenfamilien verzeichnet. Zu den am häufigsten gefundenen Wuchsformen zählten mehrjährige (43%) und kurzlebige Kräuter (23%), Sträucher (16%) und Bäume (15%). Ein Großteil der untersuchten Heilpflanzen und ihrer Produkte wird zur Behandlung von Magen-Darm-Erkrankungen eingesetzt. Die Produkte werden vorrangig als Sud oder Pulver zubereitet und oral angewendet. Achtzig der 106 traditionellen Heilpflanzen gehören der Gruppe der einheimischen Arten an. Fast 50% der Pflanzenarten treten dabei in synanthroper Vegetation auf, während der Rest in naturnaher Umgebung (z.B. extensiv beweidete Wald- und Graslandbereiche) vorgefunden werden kann. Wälder sind der Ursprung der meisten nicht synanthropen einheimischen Medizinalpflanzen. Drei Arten (Aconitum violaceum, Colchicum luteum, Jasminum humile) können als Folge intensiven Sammelns als bedroht eingestuft werden. Um die pflanzensoziologischen und phytogeografischen Aspekte des Projektes abzudecken wurde die Vegetation des Miandam-Gebietes mit einem Fokus auf Wäldern, Gebüschen und anderen Formationen untersucht. Die Ergebnisse der Vegetationserhebungen wurden mit denen anderer Studien in der weiteren Umgebung des Hindukush-Himalayas verglichen. Weiterhin wurde untersucht inwiefern die Waldökosysteme durch anthropogene Aktivitäten im Untersuchungsgebiet bedroht sind. Die im Gebiet verzeichneten Gefäßpflanzenarten umfassen insgesamt 33 Bäume, 52 Sträucher, 305 Kräuter und 11 Lianen. Basierend auf einer multivariaten Analyse konnten 12 Pflanzengesellschaften identifiziert werden. Die Spanne dieser Gesellschaften reichte von subtropischen semiariden Wäldern mit Ailanthus altissima im Tiefland zu alpinen Rasen von Sibbaldia cuneata durchsetzt mit Juniperus. Die dominierende Vegetation des Untersuchungsgebietes besteht aus von Abies pindrow und Viburnum grandiflorum Wäldern. Eine georeferenzierte Karte der Vegetation erleichtert die Lokalisierung der ökologisch interessanten Vegetation. Artenreichtum und –diversität wurden entlang eines Höhengradienten untersucht. Dazu wurde die Alpha- sowie Beta-Diversität verschiedener Wuchsformtypen bestimmt. Der Artenreichtum aller Gefäßpflanzenarten erreichte sein Maximum zwischen 2200-2500 m. Dagegen zeigte der Artenreichtum der Sträucher einen glockenkurvenartigen Verlauf mit einem Maximum zwischen 2000 und 2200 m. Die höchste Alpha-Diversität der Gefäßpflanzenarten wurde in den tieferen Lagen des Untersuchungsgebietes verzeichnet. Die Beta-Diversität aller Wuchsformtypen zeigte entlang des gesamten Höhengradienten hohe Werte und somit einen starken Artenwechsel. Die Beta-Diversität der Straucharten fluktuiert entlang des Höhengradienten und zeigt damit ein einzigartiges Muster.

Exotic pine plantations are a major landuse within the coastal lowlands of southeast Queensland, extending from close to the shoreline to the hinterland ranges. These plantations are within a sub-tropical climatic zone, and in most years, the summers are appreciably wetter than the winters. This terrain, in general, has been highly weathered and the soils are poor in nutrients. Environmental factors such as the climate, topography and weathering profile (including soil) are found to be important controls on vadose zone hydrology, which, in turn, has a great impact on tree growth and consequently on the design of management practices. This research project takes a holistic approach to investigate the influence of these environmental factors at different scales, and is designed to fulfil the following objectives: (1) To build a spatial model of forest productivity for the entire Tuan Toolara State Forest (TTSF), southeast Queensland, by analysing the spatial patterns of many environmental variables that may have controls on soil water distribution. (2) To determine how some of these environmental factors are responsible for the development of water-logging and soil salinisation by examining in detail an area of low site index that is severely affected by these two processes. (3) To develop a model to assess the risks of water-logging spatially and temporally. A multiple regression model was constructed to predict the forest productivity (measured by the value of site index, the average dominant tree height at 25 years of age). The independent variables were derived from a digital elevation model (elevation, slope, curvature, hillshade, flow accumulation and distance to streams), γ-ray spectrometry (potassium, thorium and uranium), and interpolated rainfall. The model explained up to 60% of the variance in the site indices and produced predictive maps of site index for two species: P. elliottii Engelm. and Queensland hybrid, a P. elliottii × P. caribaea Morelet hybrid. The model also identified the lowest site index area at the northern Tuan State Forest (NTSF), likely due to a greater risk of water-logging and salinisation. The NTSF area is of low relief and, therefore, the focus has been on the vertical controls of deep weathering profile. The methodology included setting up a network of groundwater bores screened at different depths within the weathering profile, characterising the profile (mineralogy, EC, and pH) and the groundwaters within it (water levels, physico-chemical parameters, major and minor ions). It is found that water-logging is caused by perched groundwater formed on top of the ferricrete or mottled saprolite after prolonged rainfall. Localised salinisation is related to the discharge of brackish groundwater occurring within the mottled saprolite. The deep aquifer within the coarse saprolite is fresh and not responsible for salinisation, a situation that differs from many other settings in Australia. The ability of using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) computer model to simulate soil water balance and to assess the risks of water-logging was tested in a selected catchment in the TTSF. The model successfully simulated stream flow at 2 weirs for a period of 6 years; the achieved R2 were 0.752 and 0.858, respectively. Long-term simulation for a 30-year period showed that there are pronounced seasonal patterns in rainfall and evapotranspiration as well as in soil water. For mature plantation with slopes of 3-15%, the mean annual duration of water-logging ranged from 161 days in the humus podzols, to 110 days in the gleyed podzolic, and to 90 days in the yellow podzolics. The outcomes of this research suggest that forest management can be strongly supported by understanding the impacts of these environmental factors (e.g. climate, topography and weathering profile) on vadose zone hydrological processes; the selection of optimum approach will depend on the research objective or purpose. The models and analytical tools that were developed or tested here have the potential to be successfully applied elsewhere if the input data are available.