A presente pesquisa visa ao estudo do sistema vocálico do saami skolt (língua da família fino-úgrica, falada na Finlândia e na Rússia) ao longo do século XX, com base em dados bibliográficos, mais especificamente transcrições fonéticas feitas nos períodos pré- e pós-realocações do povo saami skolt dos vilarejos originais para a Finlândia. Procuro fazer um estudo dialetal, traçando as particularidades dos dialetos originais quanto ao sistema vocálico, e analisar esses dois registros da língua à luz da perspectiva variacionista de Labov (Weinreich et al., 1968) e Guy (Guy, 2003), considerando também as relações de contato. O saami skolt é uma língua minoritária, falada por um povo indígena de mesmo nome, cujo número estimado de falantes varia entre 150 e 300 (Feist, 2015, 22). Impactos profundos na comunidade de fala ocorreram ao longo do século XX, em especial, a realocação do povo saami skolt de seus territórios originais na Rússia para a Finlândia, por volta da década de 40. O corpus da pesquisa foi organizado a partir do registro em transcrição fonética dos dialetos originais, feito no período pré-realocações, por Toivo Itkonen, no formato do dicionário Koltan- ja Kuolanlapin sanakirja (Itkonen, 2011 [1958]) e as transcrições fonéticas e fonológicas da língua feitas entre as décadas de 60 e 70 por Korhonen (1971); Korhonen et al. (1973). A Grammar of Skolt Saami (Feist, 2015), que aborda também a situação do saami skolt no século XXI, é uma das bases para a pesquisa e descrição da língua. Através da análise dos dados, foi possível observar e descrever a heterogeneidade da língua e de seus dialetos quanto ao inventário de vogais e ditongos. Um dos fatores observados foi, no dialeto de Paatsjoki, a ocorrência alofones anteriorizados, em comparação aos dialetos de Suonikylä e Nuortijärvi. / This research aims at the study of the vowel system of Skolt Saami (a Finnougric language spoken in Finland and Russia) over the 20th century, based on bibliographic data, more specifically phonetic transcriptions previous to and after the relocation of the Skolt people from their original villages to Finland. I intend to do a dialect study, describing the features of the original dialects regarding the vowel system and analyse these two records of the language guided by the variacionist approach of Labov (Weinreich et al., 1968) and Guy (Guy, 2003), also taking into account the languages contact relations. The Skolt Saami is a minority language spoken by a homonymous indigenous people, with an estimated number of speakers that varies between 150 and 300 (Feist, 2015, 22). The speech community went through deep impacts over the 20th century, in particular the relocation of the Skolt Saami people from their original territories in Russia to Finland, around the 1940s. The corpus was compiled using the records in phonetic transcriptions of the original dialects made by Toivo Itkonen, prior to the relocations, in the dictionary Koltan- ja Kuolanlapin sanakirja (Itkonen, 2011 [1958]), as well as the phonetic and phonemic transcriptions of the language made between the 1960s and 1970s by Korhonen (1971); Korhonen et al. (1973). A Grammar of Skolt Saami (Feist, 2015), which approaches the Skolt Saami situation also in the 21st century, is one of the basis for this project and description of the language. Through the analysis of data, it was possible to observe and describe the heterogeneity of the language regarding the vowel and diphthong inventory. One of the features found was, in the dialect of Paatsjoki, the occurrence of more fronted allophones, in comparison to the inventory of the dialects of Suonikylä and Nuortijärvi.

This thesis is a descriptive grammar of Skolt Saami, a Finno-Ugric language spoken primarily in northeast Finland by less than 400 people. The aim of this thesis is to provide an overview of all the major grammatical aspects of the language. It comprises descriptions of Skolt Saami phonology, morphophonology, morphology, morphosyntax and syntax. A compilation of interlinearised texts is appended. Skolt Saami is a phonologically complex language, displaying contrastive vowel length, consonant gradation, suprasegmental palatalisation and vowel height alternations. It is also well known for being one of the few languages to display three distinctive degrees of quantity; indeed, this very topic has already been the subject of an acoustic analysis (McRobbie-Utasi 1999). Skolt Saami is also a morphologically complex language. Nominals in Skolt Saami belong to twelve different inflectional classes. They inflect for number and nine grammatical cases and may also mark possession, giving rise to over seventy distinct forms. Verbs belong to four different inflectional classes and inflect for person, number, tense and mood. Inflection is marked by suffixes, many of which are fused morphemes. Other theoretically interesting features of the language, which are covered in this thesis, include (i) the existence of distinct predicative and attributive forms of adjectives, (ii) the case-marking of subject and object nominals which have cardinal numerals as determiners, (iii) the marking of negation with a negative auxiliary verb and (iv) the apparent verb-second phenomenon which is observed in clauses displaying an auxiliary verb. Skolt Saami is a seriously endangered language and it is thus hoped that this grammar will serve both as a tool to linguistic researchers and as an impetus to the speech community in any future revitalisation efforts.

The aim of this dissertation is to describe the language choice among Saamis in Övre Soppero, and to relate their language choice to social and cultural factors in order to establish whetheror not there exist systematic connections. The population studied (55 informants) consists of trilingual Saamis living in the village of Övre Soppero in the far north of Sweden. The informants all speak Saami, Swedish and Finnish. The study is based on interviews and observations, i.e. partly on information provided by the informants themselves concerning language choice in different discourse situations, and partly on my own observations of their language behaviour in different contexts. Language choice has been related both to domains and discourse situations and to the social backgrounds and attitudes of the informants. A description is given of the linguistic uncertainty in different discourse situations. A discourse situation comprises the following elements: interlocutors, the role relationship between them, and the scene and/or activity. The term "domain" is an abstraction of concrete discourse situations. By linguistic uncertainty, I mean the individual's use of more than one language in one and the same discourse situation. Discourse situations are divided into the following domains: family, circle of friends, casual acquaintances, religion, free time, social participation, consumer activity and public matters. All three languages occur in all domains. In the majority of domains, there is great variation in language choice depending on the discourse situation at hand. The degree of linguistic uncertainty also varies. Discourse situations have also been divided into groups according to the degree of linguistic uncertainty, and according to whether the situation is personal or transactional. Linguistic uncertainty is low, for example, when the interlocutors' roles are unambiguous and clearly established, whereas it is high when, for example, the interlocutors' roles are ambiguous and varied. Language choice has also been related to the age, profession, education and geographic mobility of the informants. The thing that most separates the different categories of informants from each other is the fact that the youngest group and those with unspecified professional category more often speak Swedish than the other groups. The former groups have a comparatively higher level of education and are socially and geographically mobile. The group that most often uses Saami is the professional category "reindeer herders". For this group, the Saami language is primarily a means of communication, whereas the youngest informants use the Saami language as an ethnic marker. The factors that seem to have the greatest influence on language choice are, for example, whether the discourse situation is public or private, and whether the relationship between the interlocutors is intimate or not, and whether it is intra- or inter-ethnic. Of crucial importance are also the sender's age, profession, social and geographical mobility, and the sender's degree of ethnic consciousness. / digitalisering@umu

This licentiate thesis investigates the case and the syntactic position of the direct object in South Saami. The focus is on plural direct objects, which have Differential Object Marking, a phenomenon in which the case alternates between different types of direct objects. In South Saami, some direct objects carry the accusative case form in the plural, while others only carry the plural marker. This variation of suffix displayed on the direct object is contingent on definiteness; definite direct objects consistently display the accusative case form in the plural while indefinite direct objects, specific and nonspecific alike, lack accusative morphology. In addition to case marking, the study presents an analysis of the alternation of the syntactic position of some direct objects. Definite and indefinite specific direct objects can be realized in two positions: as the complement of the verb or in a position as specifier of the light verb projection. By contrast, indefinite nonspecific direct objects obligatorily surface in the complement position of the verb. This variability in syntactic position of some direct objects is analyzed by means of a Specificity Operator, adjoined to the DP-level of every specific NP, definite and indefinite. The operator moves as an instance of quantifier raising in order to take scope over Existential Closure (EC). EC binds NPs in its domain and give them an existential reading. Therefore, when the Specificity Operator raises, it anchors the DP it is adjoined to in a domain, which is unbound by EC and therefore facilitates a specific interpretation. The operator, void of phonological content, can raise alone to the specifier of vP as an instance of covert movement. The operator can also Pied-pipe the DP it is adjoined to, which results in overt movement of the DP. Indefinite nonspecific direct objects lack the Specificity Operator and therefore they remain in-situ in the VP, where they are bound by EC. In addition to its theoretical value, the thesis will be of use for teachers, students and others with an interest in a better understanding of the case form and the position of the direct object in South Saami. / Daennie licentiaatetjaalegisnie gïehtjedem guktie Åarjelsamien direkte objeekth gelliengiertesne kaasushgïetjieh åadtjoeh. Manne gelliengiertem veeljeme juktie åarjelaemien gïele Differential Object Marking åtna. Naakenh direkte objeekth dam giehtjiem -idie guedtieh, mij ackusatijvem gelliengïertesne muana. Jeatjah direkte objeekth barre låhkoegiehtjiem -h guedtieh, mij ajve gelliengïertem muana, menh ij kaasusem. Dan åvteste direkte objeekti kaasushaamoeh molsedieh. Mov gïehtjidimmie vuesehte ahte definijte direkteobjeekth gelliengiertesne dam ackusatijvegïehtjiem. Eah indefinijte direkte objeekth dam gïethjiem utnieh, valla barre gelliengierehaamoem utnieh. Manne vielie gïehtjedem gusnie, dennie raaje- sisnie, leah dej direkte objeekti sijjieh. Gaavneme ahte joekehtsh leah aaj ovmessie direkte objeekti gaskoeh. Definijte jïh indefinijte specifijke direkte objeekth utnieh göökte sijjieh gusnie maehtieh jïjhtedh, valla indefinite ovspecifijke direkte objeekth utnieh ajve aktem sijjiem gusnie maehtieh årrodh. Gaajhkh dah golme ovmessie direkte objeekth maehtieh maadthsijjesne årrodh goh verben komplemeente, valla definijte jïh indefinijte specifijke direkte objeekth maehtieh aaj aktene vP:n specificeerijisnie jïjhtedh. Manne daam joekehtehtem jïh vuesehtem mannasinie naemhtie jis. Mov innovasjovne lea akte specifijkeoperatovre. Dïhte lea adjungeradamme fïerhten DP:se mij lea definijte jallh indefinijte specifijke. Dïhte operatovre iktesth bæjjene DP:n sistie vP specificeerijen sïjse, men dïhte maahta aaj dam DP:m buektedh Pied-pipingen tjïrrh. Dïhte specifijkeoperatovre bæjjene juktie edtja baataridh Existential Closuren (EC) jaksoste. Gosse operatovre bæjjene, dïhte dan sov DP:m dïbrehte akten domeenese, gusnie specifijke guarkoe daerpies sjædta. Dah direkte objeekt mah eah specifijkeoperatovrem utnieh tjoerieh baetsedh VP:n sijse, jïh dannasinie EC dejtie veadta. Dannasinie existentielle guarkoem åadtjoeh. Daate tjaalege vihkeles lingvistihke teorijese, valla aaj lohkehtæjjide, learoehkidie jïh jeatjide guhth sïjhth buerebe guarkedh mij kaasusidie lea direkte objeekten jïh gusnie, dennie raajesisnie, dïhte objeekte jæjhta. / I den här licentiatavhandling undersöks kasusformen hos de direkta objekten och deras syntaktiska position i sydsamiskan. Fokus ligger på direkta objekt i pluralis, vilka uppvisar fenomenet differentiell objektsmarkering, som innebär att vissa direkta objekt bär ackusativsuffixet i plural medan andra endast bär pluralsuffixet. Denna variation i objektsmarkering är känslig för definithet. Definita direkta objekt har accusativändelsen medan indefinita, både specifika och icke-specifika direkta objekt, saknar den. Utöver själva realiseringen av kasussuffix undersöks också de direkta objektens syntaktiska position. En analys presenteras som definierar olika typer av nominalfraser och skiljer definita och specifika direkta objekt från icke-specifika direkta objekt. Den första typen uppvisar variation i sin syntaktiska placering och har möjligheten att dyka upp både i komplementställning till verbet och i en den lilla verbfrasens specificerare, det vill säga vid gränsen för den lexikala fasen. Indefinita icke-specifika direkta objekt, som utgör den andra typen, kan bara uppträda i en position som komplement till verbet. På basis av den analys som inkluderar min innovation Specifikhetsoperatorn, vilken är adjungerad till alla definita och specifika direkta objekts DP-nivå, kan de två positionerna förklaras. Specifikhetsoperatorn flyttar alltid till vP:s specifierare som en kvantifierarinteraktion, där Specifikhetstoperatorn får räckvidd över Existential Closure (EC) och förankrar sin DP i en domän där en specifik tolkning blir nödvändig. Detta är en typ av osynlig flytt. Flytten kan också vara synlig. I det fallet sker medfraktning (Pied-piping) när Specifikhetsoperatorn tar med sig den DP den är adjungerad till när den flyttar till vPs specifierare. Direkta object som saknar Specifikhetsoperatorn stannar i positionen som komplement till verbet och binds därför av EC, vilket leder till att de får en existentiell tolkning. Bortom sitt värde för lingvistisk teoribildning kommer avhandlingen också att bli viktig för lärare, studenter och elever såväl som för andra med ett intresse av att bättre förstå vilket kasus som uppträder på sydsamiska direkta objekt och dessa objekts position i satsen.

The aim of this project is to investigate howdecolonial research can be conducted in practice whenthe researcher is a member of the majority population.I ask: what does it mean to be an ally as well as anacademic? Through autoethnography and ParticipatoryAction Research (PAR) I am attempting to “decolonisemy mind” in order to unlearn oppressive systems ofknowledge and I am using academic disobedience asan intentional strategy to disrupt colonial epistemichegemonies. Following feminist and other criticaltheory traditions and using decolonial and indigenousresearch ethics I am criticising the remnants of positivistresearch structures that exists within the social sciencesand the colonising, racialised, gendered and classed wayin which knowledge is traditionally constructed.I am also attempting to position PAR as adecolonising research methodology. Because a PARanimator does not have an automatic right to writeup and disseminate the knowledge that has beencollectively constructed by the co-researchers, however,I am inserting myself into the narrative in order toAbstractdisrupt the traditional academic voice. I attempt toquestion critically how I (auto) act in relation to myown culture and Sámi culture (ethno) through theprocess of reflective writing and analysis (graphy) – inother words, autoethnograpy.I set out to conduct a PAR project within a Sámiorganisation in Stockholm but despite my efforts theproject never really got off the ground. So apart fromexploring my own positionality relative to the Sámi,and apart from constructing an argument for decolonialresearch and allyship, this essay also offers my thoughtson why the project didn’t happen and my journey intolearning how to be a better academic ally. / <p>Student thesis MA in Culture, Diaspora and Ethnicity at Birkbeck, University of London. Presented as a seminar in "Kunskapsproduktion bortom normerna". May-Britt Öhman was supervisor to the thesis.</p>

Les régions subarctiques font face aux effets interconnectés et pluri-scalaires du changement global (amplification des extrêmes bioclimatiques et intensification dans l’utilisation des sols). Le renne, Rangifer tarandus est un grand herbivore qui migre annuellement sur de grands espaces pour ses besoins biologiques. L’ongulé cristallise de nombreux enjeux paysagers pour les pastoralismes saamis. Plusieurs populations de rennes seront étudiées dans un suivi multi-scalaire. Nous évaluons les effets directs du changement global (fragmentation paysagère et changements climatiques) sur les paysages culturels de Scandinavie en lien avec la démographie des rennes. Par la suite, la descente en échelle géographique nous permet de caractériser via satellite et relevés floristiques les effets du changement global sur les paysages végétaux de la communauté montagnarde d’éleveurs Gabna, dans le nord de la Suède. Nous étudions ensuite les comportements migratoires des rennes sauvages norvégiens, pour appréhender les liens entre variabilité bioclimatique et écologie spatiale de l’herbivore. Les résultats principaux rejoignent ceux de la littérature scientifique, appliqués aux espaces étudiés : régionalement, changement des climats et pertes significatives en pâturages ; localement, boréalisation et embroussaillement des paysages migratoires. Les liens forts entre une partie des effets cumulés du changement global et la biogéographie scandinave de Rangifer tarandus sont ainsi discutés. L’approche paysagère dans les problématiques environnementales complexes (revendication territoriale) a révélé l’importance de l’éthique dans le dialogue science/minorités. / Les régions subarctiques font face aux effets interconnectés et pluri-scalaires du changement global (amplification des extrêmes bioclimatiques et intensification dans l’utilisation des sols). Le renne, Rangifer tarandus est un grand herbivore qui migre annuellement sur de grands espaces pour ses besoins biologiques. L’ongulé cristallise de nombreux enjeux paysagers pour les pastoralismes saamis. Plusieurs populations de rennes seront étudiées dans un suivi multi-scalaire. Nous évaluons les effets directs du changement global (fragmentation paysagère et changements climatiques) sur les paysages culturels de Scandinavie en lien avec la démographie des rennes. Par la suite, la descente en échelle géographique nous permet de caractériser via satellite et relevés floristiques les effets du changement global sur les paysages végétaux de la communauté montagnarde d’éleveurs Gabna, dans le nord de la Suède. Nous étudions ensuite les comportements migratoires des rennes sauvages norvégiens, pour appréhender les liens entre variabilité bioclimatique et écologie spatiale de l’herbivore. Les résultats principaux rejoignent ceux de la littérature scientifique, appliqués aux espaces étudiés : régionalement, changement des climats et pertes significatives en pâturages ; localement, boréalisation et embroussaillement des paysages migratoires. Les liens forts entre une partie des effets cumulés du changement global et la biogéographie scandinave de Rangifer tarandus sont ainsi discutés. L’approche paysagère dans les problématiques environnementales complexes (revendication territoriale) a révélé l’importance de l’éthique dans le dialogue science/minorités.

The goal of this work is to describe the domain of predicative possession in South Saami, a Finno-Ugric language spoken in Sweden and Norway. Data has been elicited from native speakers of South Saami, and the analysis has been carried out within a general functional-typological framework. In South Saami, four different predicative possessive constructions are used: (1) a habeo-verb construc­tion, (2a) a genitive possessive without copula, (2b) a genitive possessive with copula, and (3) a locational possessive. The latter is not described in the grammars. The have-possessive and the genitive possessives occur frequently and are used to encode all notions of possession. The use of the locational possessive is restricted to inanimate possessors. Distri­bution of the constructions varies among the speakers. Examples for the have-possessive construction present the greatest structural variation. The four possessive constructions are set within a typological context. / Denna studie beskriver predikativ possession i sydsamiska, ett finsk-ugriskt språk som talas i Sverige och Norge. Materialet till studien eliciterades från sex sydsamiska modersmålstalare. Analysen genomfördes inom en typologisk-funktionalistisk inriktning. Analysen visar att i sydsamiskan används fyra olika konstruktioner för att uttrycka predikativt ägande: (1) en habeo-verbkonstruktion, (2a) en genitivkonstruktion utan kopula, (2b) en genitivkonstruktion med kopula, och (3) en lokativkonstruktion. Den senare omnämns inte i de existerande gramma­tiska beskrivningarna, och konstruktionen är begränsad till inanimata ägare. Verbkonstruk­tionen och de båda genitiv­konstruktionerna före­kommer frekvent i materialet och används för alla possessiva relationer. Fördelningen av de olika konstruktionerna varierar hos talarna. Den största strukturella variationen återfinns i habeo-verbkonstruktionen. De fyra possessivkonstruktionerna sätts i uppsatsen in i en typologisk kontext.

Abstract The study focuses on the t-ending infinitive in North Saami and the first infinitive short form in Finnish in the context of the verbs leat ’be’ and olla ’be’, respectively. The study compares the use of the infinitives in structures that are the same in both languages and structures that occur in one language but have no equivalent in the other. The same structure may also have divergent meanings in the two languages. The study investigates the grammatical structure of infinitives as well as the use and meaning of infinitival phrases in the following environments: 1) infinitival phrases as subjects, 2) basic infinitives in the context of nouns and adjectives, 3) cases of the lei/oli infinitive (a variant of the conditional perfect in Saami and a structure that implicates 'being close' in Finnish), 4) the relative infinitive and 5) the supine structure in Saami. The material for the study comes from North-Saami and Finnish fiction that was published in 1979–1997: it comprises texts from 18 authors in both languages. The study is qualitative. It moves from Saami to Finnish and also vice versa, being thus of bidirectional character. Its emphasis, however, is on Saami. The data include original texts in both languages as well as translations from Saami into Finnish by the researcher. The study examines infinitive structures in North Saami and Finnish, separately as well as together, and reports on their similarities and differences based either on syntactic analysis, semantic analysis or both. / Tiivistelmä Tutkimuksen kohteena on pohjoissaamen ja suomen perusinfinitiivimuoto yhdessä saamen leat ’olla’-verbin ja suomen olla-verbin kanssa. Tutkimuksessa verrataan kielten perusinfinitiivin käyttöä rakenteissa, jotka ovat kummassakin kielessä samoja, ja rakenteissa, joilla ei ole vastinetta toisessa kielessä. Sama rakenne voi olla kielissä myös merkitykseltään erilainen. Tarkastelun kohteena on infinitiivin kieliopillinen rakenne ja infinitiivilausekkeen käyttö sekä merkitys seuraavissa tapauksissa: 1) infinitiivilauseke subjektina 2) perusinfinitiivi substantiivin ja adjektiivin yhteydessä 3) lei/oli infinitiivi -tapaukset (saamen konditionaalin perfektin variantti ja suomen ’lähellä olemista’ merkitsevä rakenne) 4) relatiivi-infinitiivi ja 5) saamen supiinirakenne. Tutkimusmateriaali on peräisin vuosina 1979–1997 ilmestyneestä pohjoissaamen- ja suomenkielisestä kaunokirjallisuudesta: mukana ovat 18 kirjoittajan tekstit kummastakin kielestä. Tutkimus on luonteeltaan kvalitatiivinen. Se etenee saamesta suomeen ja välillä päinvastoin ja on luonteeltaan kaksisuuntaista. Tutkimuksen painotus on kuitenkin saamen kielessä. Molempien kielten tutkimusaineisto on originaalitekstiä, mutta tutkimusaineisto sisältää myös tutkijan omia käännöksiä saamesta suomeen. Tutkimus tarkastelee infinitiivirakenteita yhdessä ja erikseen pohjoissaamessa ja suomessa ja raportoi kielten yhtäläisyyksistä ja eroista joko syntaktisen tai semanttisen analyysin tai molempien perusteella.

The areas of study for this dissertation are the Turopon and Sirkas lappbyar (communities) in the parish of Jokkmokk during the period 1760—1860. The starting point for discussion is a decrease in population through migration to Norway, from 667 inhabitants in 1781, to 353 in 1868. The primary cause was the ecological instability of reindeer herding with recurring crises caused by poor grazing, adverse snow conditions, epizootics, and predators. The stability in reindeer herding is finally determined by the numbers of grazing animals and the carrying capacities of the pastures. A disturbance in the balance between people and animals could occur if competition from the settlers limited available pastures, or the government through taxes appropriated so much of the surplus that the subsistence level was markedly increased. A closer examination reveals, however, that no outside influences can be indicated as being responsible for the population decline. Attention must thus be directed toward the inner social processes of this pastoralist society. While the reindeer herding population diminished, the total number of reindeer remained on a relatively constant level. The resulting process of accumulation consolidated the reindeer into the hands of fewer owners. While these conclusions indicate an economically differentiated society, the marriage pattern shows that the social distance between the economic groupings was very small. By promoting economic differentiation, trade had an important potential as agent of social stratification. This potential was, however, not fully realized. The equalizing factors were stronger than the differentiating forces. / <p>Diss. (sammanfattning) Umeå : Umeå universitet, 1989, härtill 5 uppsatser</p> / digitalisering@umu

The purpose of this study is to examine the colonisation of Sápmi though the works of a local priest, by the name of Eric Grape. To do so, this study uses postcolonial theory when analysing the content of the works by Grape. Eric Grape was a priest active in the Lappmarks of northern Sweden in the early nineteenth century and who wrote articles for the Swedish Royal Academy of Sciences. The focus of the study is the othering of the Saami people and their culture, and the colonial production of knowledge that Grape produced about the Saami. Othering is a term by Edward Said and it is about the constructed difference between “we” the European culture and people regarded as the “other”. This term, the study argues, can also be applied when studying the colonial encounters between the Saami and Swedish colonial actors such as Grape. The main result of this study is that Grape portrays the Saami as different and more primitive than the Swedish settlers that occupy the northen part of Sweden, he describes the Saami as childish.