The late1980s, early 1990s was a time of change in the Swedish education system. New political reforms changed the Swedish living and school standards. The outcome of the reforms were decentralization, parents’ right to choose school and independent schools. The reforms opened up for a more local influence in schools, and paretns right to choose school and education of their own intreset. The focus of this essay is the concept of decentralization and equivalence and how it has changed and formed todays ementary school. This is a literary study about changes in the Swedish education system founded on studie reports and political reforms. The outcome of this study shows a change in the Swedish school, whitch has segregated both schools and students in a more homogeneously way, and the equality  has deteriorated.

The aim of this thesis is to investigate the assessment process in Swedish compulsory school practice, and the changes that occur in relation to the introduction of national school reforms. The fieldwork forming the basis of the thesis was conducted in year five and year six classrooms between 2011-2013, a period during which new national syllabuses with knowledge requirements, grades in year six and extended national tests were introduced. The thesis consists of four articles, the first of which explores how the assessment process is put into practice in a year five classroom and how it is understood by the students and one of their teachers. The fieldwork on which the first article is based was conducted prior to the introduction of the above-mentioned reforms. The second article investigates the assessment process in two different year five classrooms in two schools, after the introduction of the new syllabuses but prior to the introduction of grades in year six and extended national tests. The third article investigates changes in the assessment process in the same two schools. The fieldwork was conducted in year five and year six, in relation to the introduction of grades in year six and extended national tests. The fourth article addresses how changes in the assessment process have affected students’ learner identities. The empirical material was collected during four fieldwork periods in three schools, chiefly through classroom observations, interviews and student essays. The analysis in the thesis is based primarily on Basil Bernstein’s (e.g. 2000) theoretical framework but also on the theoretical concepts of Torrance and Pryor (1998). The study shows that the reforms are exerting a significant influence on the assessment process in the investigated classroom practices. Teachers monitor their students’ performance more closely and students strive to acquaint themselves with what is expected of them. It also appears that the focus is increasingly on students’ performance in relation to the steering documents, that the more regulated practices restrict teachers’ and students’ autonomy and that the assessment process in the two schools investigated in both year five and year six are becoming increasingly similar. Furthermore, the study shows that students tend to pay more attention to their school work, while at the same time experiencing more negative pressure to perform. In the concluding analysis and discussion sections, connections are drawn between prevailing education policy and the reforms, as well as their influence on classroom practice, students and teachers.

The government primary education system in Karachi, Pakistan, is faced with many problems and dilemmas and each dilemma justifies a reason, but perhaps no problem is as grave as the dejected professional status of the government primary school teachers in Karachi. Schools are only as good as their teachers, regardless of how high their standards, how up-to-date their technology, or how innovative their programs. With a large numbers of under-educated, under-trained, under-paid and, most importantly of all, undervalued government primary school teachers in Karachi, Pakistan (Hoodbhoy, 1998; Shaikh, 1997), only a low percentage of teachers can be effective. Whether the children in Pakistan will be the enlightened and the informed citizens of tomorrow or ignorant members of society will depend on teacher knowledge, teacher education and above all teacher professionalism. If teachers do matter the most, then a series of questions result. What is being done for this section of the society that matters so much? Are efforts being taken to find out what teachers in the government primary schools need to achieve their professional goals? Are these teachers given adequate opportunities to learn, to improve and to become effective teachers? How can these teachers meet the ever increasing demands placed upon them? How will these teachers successfully lead the students into the twenty-first century? Do the primary government school teachers believe that they can successfully lead children into the twenty-first century? Are school reforms geared towards enhancing teachers' professionalism? This research that focuses on the relationships between school reforms and teacher professionalism in government primary schools in Karachi, Pakistan, addresses such questions. In this thesis, I outline some of the measures that have been taken at the government, at the non-government and at the school sector level to restructure and reform primary government schools in Pakistan. A mixed methods research approach was undertaken to investigate the relationships between these reforms and teacher professionalism. Quantitative data were collected by means of questionnaire surveys and qualitative data were collected in the selected four case sites by means of interviews and field notes. In this research it was important to investigate teacher efficacy, teacher practice, teacher leadership and collaborative efforts as the different dimensions of professionalism and the relationships between these and the school reforms for enhanced teacher professionalism. Research was required which addressed the question of "What it actually means to be a professional teacher in government primary schools in Karachi, Pakistan, and how school reforms can actually develop teacher learning for improved teacher professionalism?" Contrary to the detached and noncommittal attitude with which the government primary school teachers are characterized in many contexts, the teachers in this study have indicated that they are confident and capable; they can articulate and communicate ideas; they can make decisions and undertake responsibilities; they understand that it is important to collaborate and learn from one another; and they are willing to undertake leadership roles if they have the opportunities. This has strong implications for policy makers to provide teachers with the opportunities to become active and reflective professionals. It is important to regard teachers as change agents capable of generating knowledge and of making change happen, rather than as passive recipients and users of knowledge. The data provided by the teachers have indicated that it is possible to enhance teacher professionalism within the existing government primary school structures. While the different teachers were at different levels or stages of professionalism, it was quite clear that they had all advanced in terms of their professionalism as a consequence of reform initiatives. These changes in the teachers' levels of professionalism defined the relationships between the school reforms and teacher professionalism. In other words, the school reforms have been able to develop teacher professionalism and take it to a higher level than where it was when the reforms were initiated in the schools. Based on the analysis of the findings, this research theorizes that teacher professionalism is developed when teachers are provided with both the professional knowledge and skills to improve their capabilities, and opportunities to translate professional knowledge and skills into classroom and school activities to make the most of their capabilities. The research proposes that the strength of these relationships between school reforms and teacher professionalism depends on the dynamism with which the reform managers take teachers through the stage of involving them in developmental process, the stage of initiating professional development programmes and the stage of developing schools into collaborative cultures and establishing networks with the help of enlightened principals and hybrid support structures. Based on this proposition a number of principles have been identified for sustaining and further developing teacher professionalism. The study acknowledges that the process of developing teacher professionalism is complex and that it will be the blend of different elements in the schools, the particular school context and political will that will decide how professionalism can best be fostered in the government primary schools. However, since the principles derived from this research are based on grounded research findings and are also supported by literature and other relevant research in the area of teacher development, they may be applicable to other primary schools where similar reforms are being implemented in Pakistan and other developing countries seeking to address similar problems. Policy makers and large private organizations may benefit from the principles of developing and fostering teacher professionalism.

Teacher's education in Bohemian (historic overview) Keywords: Pedagogy, teacher's education, school reforms, teacher The aim of this thesis is to describe the development in teacher education since the late 18th century to the 40th years of the 20th century. In this context, I also try to show the position of the Czech teacher in society. I focus mainly on certain groundbreaking moments in teacher education, therefore I pay attention to the changes in education system as a whole, show the causes of these changes and present the personalities that have directly or indirectly affected these changes.

<p>Behörighetskrav inför</p><p>gymnasial yrkesutbildning -</p><p>vem innesluts och vem utesluts?</p><p>Kjell Lundberg</p><p>Sammanfattning</p><p>Bakgrunden till mitt valda ämne är att jag arbetar på ett fordonstekniskt PRIV program. Elever</p><p>som går detta program har inte blivit antagna till ett nationellt program på grund av behörighetskraven</p><p>i Lpf-94. Flera av dessa elever skulle klara karaktärsämnena på ett nationellt program,</p><p>men skulle ha stora svårigheter i kärnämnena, även med extra hjälp.</p><p>De läroplansutredningar och behörighetskrav som jag har studerat är för: 1955 års yrkesskolreform,</p><p>Lgy-70, Lpf-94 och SOU 2008:27 Framtidsvägen – en reformerad gymnasieskola (förslag</p><p>till gymnasiereform GY-10).</p><p>Syftet med studien:</p><p>• Hur ser behörighetskraven till yrkesutbildning ut i de olika läroplanerna?</p><p>• Vad är tankarna bakom läroplanerna?</p><p>• Hur kan kraven i utredningarna till läroplanerna ses i ljuset av perspektiv på kunskap?</p><p>Metoden jag har använt mig av är en dokumentstudie och kunskapsbegreppet används som</p><p>teoretiskt perspektiv.</p><p>Studien börjar med en historisk utblick på yrkesutbildningar. Den fortsätter sedan med en</p><p>förklaring av syftet med läroplaner och framarbetningsstrategier av läroplaner.</p><p>Resultaten av min studie är: Med 1955 års yrkesskolreform flyttades yrkesutbildningen in i</p><p>skolmiljö. De två huvudargumenten till detta var att statsmakten ville göra det möjligt att fostra</p><p>ungdomar till demokratiska medborgare och man såg inte hur arbetsmarknaden skulle hinna</p><p>med att utbilda lärlingar.</p><p>Lgy-70 har de generösaste antagningsvillkoren. I denna läroplan blev nästan alla ungdomar</p><p>antagna till yrkesutbildning förutom att det fanns chans att bli antagen under fri kvot. Den fria</p><p>kvoten öppnade dörren för bl.a. ungdomar med utländskt utbildning och sökande som på grund</p><p>av handikapp inte kunnat uppnå full behörighet.</p><p>Lpf-94 är unik på det sättet, att det var första gången kärnämnesbetyg från grundskolan användes</p><p>som behörighetskrav till yrkeslinjerna. Samtliga program blev treåriga och gemensamma</p><p>kärnämnen infördes.</p><p>Gymnasieutredningen SOU 2008:27 (GY-10) föreslår en tydlig skärpning av behörighetskraven</p><p>för yrkesprogrammen. Utredaren föreslår minst godkänt i åtta kärnämnen, i jämförelse</p><p>med dagens tre. Nu är cirkeln sluten vad gäller yrkeskunskaperna. Utredaren föreslår vidare en</p><p>yrkesexamen, som ger en erkänd kompetens i yrket och med en komplimenterande lärlingsutbildning</p><p>till yrkesprogrammen. Nu hoppas utredarna att arbetsmarknaden skall ha kapacitet att</p><p>utbilda lärlingar, som man inte var övertygad om arbetsmarknaden hade på 50-talet.</p><p>Vidare resultat av min studie ger vid handen följande: Det källmaterial till läroplanerna jag</p><p>har analyserat har använt i stort sett samma argument till att ändra läroplanerna. Näringslivet</p><p>vill ha förändring t.ex. bättre yrkeskunskaper och statsmakten vill försäkra sig om en bred medborgarfostran</p><p>tillsammans med en möjlighet för individen att senare i livet genomgå kompetensutveckling</p><p>och högskolestudier.</p><p>Abstract</p><p>The decision to select this particular content of my thesis was due to my present occupation as a</p><p>teacher attached to a vehicle mechanics “PRIV” programme (reduced national program). Students</p><p>who participate in this programme have been excluded from the national programme due</p><p>to the criteria of admittance in Lpf-94. Several of these students would pass the trade subjects at</p><p>the national programme, but encounter difficulties with the basic subjects, in spite of added</p><p>support.</p><p>I have scrutinized the following curriculum proposals and admittance rules for: 1955 Trade</p><p>School Reform, Lgy-70, Lpf-94 and SOU 2008:27 Framtidsvägen – en reformerad gymnasieskola</p><p>(the current proposal to a new Upper Secondary School Reform, GY-10). The hypothesis</p><p>of my study is to find answers to the following questions:</p><p>• What rules of admittance applies to Vocational Schools in the different Curriculums?</p><p>• What is the basic content of thoughts behind the different Curriculums?</p><p>• How do the demands for in the proposals of the curriculums meet the conceptions of</p><p>knowledge in perspective?</p><p>The method used is a literature study and conception of knowledge is used as the theoretical</p><p>perspective.</p><p>The literature study commences with a historical retrospection of vocational training. From</p><p>there it elaborates on the purpose of curriculums and the design strategies of same.</p><p>The conclusion of my thesis is: The 1955 Reform of the trade school established the vocational</p><p>training within the existing educational training system, due to the desire from the government</p><p>to avail the possibilities in bringing up young people as responsible and democraticly</p><p>aware citizens. There was also a fear that the market did not have the capacity to train enough</p><p>trainees.</p><p>Lgy-70 has got the most generous admittance conditions. The authorities at that time realised</p><p>the importance of that education above elementary school level was availed to everybody. Even</p><p>in the case of not being born in Sweden or being a handicapped student.</p><p>Lpf-94 is unique in the following way: It introduced restrictions to enrol to the Upper Secondary</p><p>School (vocational school). All programmes became three years and all students studied</p><p>the same basic subjects.</p><p>The proposal which forms GY-10 reinforces the trend of restrictions to enrol to the Upper</p><p>Secondary School. At the same time this proposal is back to the 1955 Trade School ambition of</p><p>acquiring final trade skill. An apprenticeship as a complement to the in-house training is proposed</p><p>and further, now, the researchers are hopeful that the market shall have the capacity to</p><p>train trainees, contrary to what the researchers believed in the fifties.</p><p>Finally, all the proposals to curriculums have used the same argument to the content of the</p><p>curriculums. The business environment demands a change and the authorities will ensure a</p><p>broad civil obedience, together with a possibility for the citizen to study at the next level.</p>

Behörighetskrav inför gymnasial yrkesutbildning - vem innesluts och vem utesluts? Kjell Lundberg Sammanfattning Bakgrunden till mitt valda ämne är att jag arbetar på ett fordonstekniskt PRIV program. Elever som går detta program har inte blivit antagna till ett nationellt program på grund av behörighetskraven i Lpf-94. Flera av dessa elever skulle klara karaktärsämnena på ett nationellt program, men skulle ha stora svårigheter i kärnämnena, även med extra hjälp. De läroplansutredningar och behörighetskrav som jag har studerat är för: 1955 års yrkesskolreform, Lgy-70, Lpf-94 och SOU 2008:27 Framtidsvägen – en reformerad gymnasieskola (förslag till gymnasiereform GY-10). Syftet med studien: • Hur ser behörighetskraven till yrkesutbildning ut i de olika läroplanerna? • Vad är tankarna bakom läroplanerna? • Hur kan kraven i utredningarna till läroplanerna ses i ljuset av perspektiv på kunskap? Metoden jag har använt mig av är en dokumentstudie och kunskapsbegreppet används som teoretiskt perspektiv. Studien börjar med en historisk utblick på yrkesutbildningar. Den fortsätter sedan med en förklaring av syftet med läroplaner och framarbetningsstrategier av läroplaner. Resultaten av min studie är: Med 1955 års yrkesskolreform flyttades yrkesutbildningen in i skolmiljö. De två huvudargumenten till detta var att statsmakten ville göra det möjligt att fostra ungdomar till demokratiska medborgare och man såg inte hur arbetsmarknaden skulle hinna med att utbilda lärlingar. Lgy-70 har de generösaste antagningsvillkoren. I denna läroplan blev nästan alla ungdomar antagna till yrkesutbildning förutom att det fanns chans att bli antagen under fri kvot. Den fria kvoten öppnade dörren för bl.a. ungdomar med utländskt utbildning och sökande som på grund av handikapp inte kunnat uppnå full behörighet. Lpf-94 är unik på det sättet, att det var första gången kärnämnesbetyg från grundskolan användes som behörighetskrav till yrkeslinjerna. Samtliga program blev treåriga och gemensamma kärnämnen infördes. Gymnasieutredningen SOU 2008:27 (GY-10) föreslår en tydlig skärpning av behörighetskraven för yrkesprogrammen. Utredaren föreslår minst godkänt i åtta kärnämnen, i jämförelse med dagens tre. Nu är cirkeln sluten vad gäller yrkeskunskaperna. Utredaren föreslår vidare en yrkesexamen, som ger en erkänd kompetens i yrket och med en komplimenterande lärlingsutbildning till yrkesprogrammen. Nu hoppas utredarna att arbetsmarknaden skall ha kapacitet att utbilda lärlingar, som man inte var övertygad om arbetsmarknaden hade på 50-talet. Vidare resultat av min studie ger vid handen följande: Det källmaterial till läroplanerna jag har analyserat har använt i stort sett samma argument till att ändra läroplanerna. Näringslivet vill ha förändring t.ex. bättre yrkeskunskaper och statsmakten vill försäkra sig om en bred medborgarfostran tillsammans med en möjlighet för individen att senare i livet genomgå kompetensutveckling och högskolestudier. Abstract The decision to select this particular content of my thesis was due to my present occupation as a teacher attached to a vehicle mechanics “PRIV” programme (reduced national program). Students who participate in this programme have been excluded from the national programme due to the criteria of admittance in Lpf-94. Several of these students would pass the trade subjects at the national programme, but encounter difficulties with the basic subjects, in spite of added support. I have scrutinized the following curriculum proposals and admittance rules for: 1955 Trade School Reform, Lgy-70, Lpf-94 and SOU 2008:27 Framtidsvägen – en reformerad gymnasieskola (the current proposal to a new Upper Secondary School Reform, GY-10). The hypothesis of my study is to find answers to the following questions: • What rules of admittance applies to Vocational Schools in the different Curriculums? • What is the basic content of thoughts behind the different Curriculums? • How do the demands for in the proposals of the curriculums meet the conceptions of knowledge in perspective? The method used is a literature study and conception of knowledge is used as the theoretical perspective. The literature study commences with a historical retrospection of vocational training. From there it elaborates on the purpose of curriculums and the design strategies of same. The conclusion of my thesis is: The 1955 Reform of the trade school established the vocational training within the existing educational training system, due to the desire from the government to avail the possibilities in bringing up young people as responsible and democraticly aware citizens. There was also a fear that the market did not have the capacity to train enough trainees. Lgy-70 has got the most generous admittance conditions. The authorities at that time realised the importance of that education above elementary school level was availed to everybody. Even in the case of not being born in Sweden or being a handicapped student. Lpf-94 is unique in the following way: It introduced restrictions to enrol to the Upper Secondary School (vocational school). All programmes became three years and all students studied the same basic subjects. The proposal which forms GY-10 reinforces the trend of restrictions to enrol to the Upper Secondary School. At the same time this proposal is back to the 1955 Trade School ambition of acquiring final trade skill. An apprenticeship as a complement to the in-house training is proposed and further, now, the researchers are hopeful that the market shall have the capacity to train trainees, contrary to what the researchers believed in the fifties. Finally, all the proposals to curriculums have used the same argument to the content of the curriculums. The business environment demands a change and the authorities will ensure a broad civil obedience, together with a possibility for the citizen to study at the next level.

This study investigates the development of the subject of English in Swedish upper secondary schools through an analysis of the syllabi in the curricula Lgy 70, Lpf 94 and Lgy 11, with a focus on English teaching and learning. In the last 50 years, the Swedish upper secondary school has undergone three major reforms. These three reforms have had an impact on the ways of teaching the English subject. By employing Fairclough’s (1992a) three-dimensional model, the study finds that these three major reforms had an impact on English teaching and learning in terms of communicative competence and individualization and teachers’ roles. The finding is important because it indicates that the current upper secondary English classroom needs to be changed when it comes to teaching and learning methods.

The aim of this study was to critically analyse the bill (2021/22:162) which lay the foundation for the upcoming changes to the Swedish Education Act. Applying Carol Bacchi's framework “What’s the problem represented to be?”, this study aimed to answer how problems and solutions were presented in relation to the school's assignment towards students with intellectual disabilities (ID). In addition, identifying what silences could be discovered in the bill. Dyson and Millward's forms of inclusion constituted the study's theoretical framework. The analysed areas were limited to strengthening student health, guaranteeing early support efforts, and replacing and eliminating certain outdated concepts. The results show that none of the government's proposals met the criteria for strong inclusion, but contained both inclusive and exclusionary elements. Although the bill presented an ambition to strengthen the education for students with ID, results showed that this ambition did not include all students. Depending on which proposal the government presented, students with ID were attributed different characteristics to justify the government's proposal. This study also shows that the presented solutions were applicable within the existing school system and deriving from individual shortcomings. Further problematization of overall obstacles for students with ID was thus missing.

Diese Dissertation behandelt die Erwerbstätigkeit von Müttern, Fertilität und die Entwicklung von Kindern in Deutschland. In Kapitel zwei evaluieren wir den Effekt der Elterngeldreform von 2007. Zunächst zeigen wir die „child penalty“, den Effekt der Mutterschaft auf die Erwerbstätigkeit. Wir verwenden dann die errechneten „child penalties“ vor und nach der Reform, um zu zeigen, dass die Reform positive Effekte auf die mittelfristige Erwerbstätigkeit hatte. Kapitel drei konzentriert sich auf die sogenannten „Cash-for-Care“-Transferleistungen für Eltern von ein- bis zweijährigen Kindern. Ich zeige eine signifikante Reduzierung der Beschäftigung bei Migrantinnen, wenn die potenziellen Leistungen erhöht werden. Es gibt positive Auswirkungen auf die Fertilität. Keine signifikanten Effekte finde ich für die Entwicklung der Kinder. In Kapitel vier untersuchen wir den Effekt der deutschen Ganztagsgrundschulen auf die Schulkinder. Unsere Ergebnisse zeigen positive Auswirkungen auf die Schulleistungen. Wir stellen auch signifikante positive Peer-Effekte der Ganztagsprogramme fest. Allerdings finden wir nicht, dass diese Programme zur Verringerung der Ungleichheit im Schulsystem beitragen. Kapitel fünf behandelt die Untererfassung von Teilzeit in den administrativen Arbeitsmarktdaten, welche bis 2011 vorkam. Wir entwickeln eine Korrekturmethode für fehlerhalft als Vollzeit registrierte Teilzeitbeschäftigungsverhältnisse. Die Korrektur hat Auswirkungen auf die Entwicklung der Lohnungleichheit, aber auch die Müttererwerbstätigkeit. Zusammenfassend befasst sich meine Dissertation mit dem Zeitraum von der Geburt bis zur Grundschule und untersucht Effekte auf Mütter und Kinder. Darüber hinaus wird die fehlerhafte Erfassung von Teilzeitbeschäftigungen in den administrativen Arbeitsmarktdaten adressiert. Die Arbeit zielt darauf ab, wertvolle Erkenntnisse über die Auswirkungen von Transferleistungen und die Gestaltung von Grundschulprogrammen auf Familien in Deutschland zu liefern. / This dissertation examines various aspects related to maternal employment, fertility and the skill development of children in Germany. In chapter two, we develop an estimation method for the causal effect of the 2007 parental benefits reform in Germany. Therefore, we first estimate the "child penalty'' on employment outcomes, then we use the estimated child penalties before and after reform implementation to assess reform effects. We find that the reform had positive effects on medium-run employment. Chapter three focuses on the so-called "cash-for-care''-transfers for parents of children aged one to two. I find a significant reduction of employment for migrant mothers if the potential benefit amount is increased. There are positive effects on fertility for the average of the population. However, I do not find significant effects on the skill development of children. In chapter four, we study the expansions of German all-day schools and their impact on children's outcomes. Our findings reveal evidence of positive impacts on children's achievements. We also show significant positive peer effects from classmates attending all-day programs. However, we do not find significant evidence that these programs significantly contribute to decreasing inequality in the German school system. Chapter five addresses an important aspect in the administrative labor market data. By developing a correction for misreported part-time employment spells which happened in the years prior 2011. The corrected data have implications for studying wage inequality, but also for studying maternal employment as the part-time share is very high among mothers of young children. In summary, this dissertation studies the period from birth to primary school. It covers topics such as maternal employment, fertility and skill development. Additionally, it addresses the data problem of misreported part-time spells in the administrative labor market data and presents a correction methodology.

This dissertation focuses on history of czech teachers, primarily high school teachers. The idea is to originate everything from the basics of history that is traditionally in rythm with political changes. This thesis is focused on deeper understanding of transformation of czech education, changes and developpement of one multilayered professional status or in the end a change of czech society in the first half of the 20th century. The time period between 1945 and 1955 is well known for its political, bussines and economic transitions. The main focus of this disertation is to show from the history of teachers which they are related to the teaching laws, the big modification that has happened at the time period. Concrete examples are presented in a detailed developpements which are different between inland and borderline gymnasiums and the way the teaching is conducted. This disertation offers complete picture of this topic, that is until now processed only in ideologically orientated publications. KEY WORDS decline, elite, high school teachers, school reforms, school laws, history of teachers