Die vorliegende Dissertation behandelt das Zusammenspiel von effizienten aktiven Lasermedien und neuartigen sättigbaren Absorbern, welche auf den Kohlenstoff-Nanostrukturen Graphen und den einwandigen Kohlenstoff Nanoröhren (SWCNTs) basieren. Die aktiven Lasermedien decken den Spektralbereich von 1,0 Mikrometer bis 2,1 Mikrometer ab, d.h. eine ganze Oktave, und nutzen die laseraktiven Ionen des Ytterbiums, Chroms und Thuliums. In dieser Arbeit werden die auf Graphen und SWCNT basierenden sättigbaren Absorber hinsichtlich ihres einer Anregung folgenden Relaxationsverhaltens, ihrer von der Fluenz abhängigen Transmission und ihres Sättigungs- verhaltens bei hohen Fluenzen untersucht. Eine vorangestellte Einführung der optischen Eigenschaften von Graphen und SWCNTs wird gegeben und die Modelle zur Beschreibung realer Proben werden aus theoretischen Modellvorstellungen hergeleitet. Die sättigbaren Absorber basierend auf Graphen und SWCNTs werden untereinander und mit klassischen halbleitenden sättigbaren Absorbern verglichen. Diese Arbeit zeigt ferner die Erzeugung ultrakurzer Pulse verschiedener Laser mit diesen neuartigen sättigbaren Absorbern basierend auf Kohlenstoff Nanostrukturen. Die erhaltenen Pulse werden mittels Spektrometrie, Autokorrelation, Radiofrequenz- und partiell FROG-Messungen charakterisiert, und der zugrunde liegende Pulsformungsmechanismus, sowie die Stabilität gegen das Güteschalten werden diskutiert. / This thesis addresses the interplay of highly efficient active laser media and novel saturable absorbers based on the carbon nanostructures graphene and single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs). The active laser media cover the spectral region from 1.0 micron up to 2.1 micron, i.e. a whole octave, and apply ytterbium, chromium and thulium as active lasing ions. Within this work, the saturable absorbers based on SWCNTs and graphene are characterized with respect to their relaxation behaviour after excitation, and with respect to their fluence-dependent transmission and saturation. A precedent introduction of the general optical properties of graphene and SWCNTs is presented as well and the models to describe real samples experimentally are deduced from theoretical model conceptions. The saturable absorbers based on graphene and SWCNTs are compared to each other and to classical semiconducting saturable absorbers. This thesis further presents the generation of ultrashort laser pulses applying these novel carbon nanostructure based saturable absorbers in different lasers. The obtained pulses are characterized by spectrometry, autocorrelation, radio-frequency measurements and partially by FROG measurements. Additionally, the underlying pulse formation process and the Q-switching stability are discussed.

We report on conductance measurements in carbon nanotube based double quantum dots connected to two normal electrodes and a central superconducting finger. By operating our devices as Cooper pair beam splitters, we provide evidence for Crossed Andreev Reflection (CAR). We inject Cooper pairs in the superconducting electrode and measure the differential conductance at both left and right arm. The contacts split the device into two coupled quantum dots. Each of the quantum dots can be tuned by a lateral sidegate. If the two sidegates are tuned such that both quantum dots are at a transmission resonance, a considerable part of the injected Cooper pairs splits into different normal contacts. On the contrary, if only one of the two dots is at resonance, nearly all pairs tunnel to the same normal contact. By comparing different triple points in the double dot stability diagram, we demonstrate the contribution of split Cooper pairs to the total current. In this manner, we are able to extract a splitting efficiency of up to 50% in the resonant case. Carbon Nanotubes ensure ballistic transport and long spin-flip scattering lengths. Due to these properties they are promising candidates to investigate EPR-type correlations in solid state systems.

This thesis presents experimental and related theoretical studies of single layer graphene, bilayer graphene and single walled carbon nanotubes. The thesis is divided into three parts; the first part describes the phonon renormalization due to doping in two dimensional graphene and one dimensional carbon nanotubes. In the recent years, there is a tremendous interest both experimentally and theoretically, in the issues related to electron-phonon coupling in nanotubes and graphene. Theoretically, it is expected that the presence of Kohn anomalies in graphene and metallic nanotubes will result in significant changes in the self energy of phonons due to doping. In particular, with Fermi energy shift how the blockage of phonon decay (due to Pauli Exclusion Principle) into electron-hole excitations changes the phonon frequencies as well as its life time have been studied in details in the first part of the thesis. Since in graphene and metallic nanotubes, the momentum relaxation time of electrons is comparable to the phonon pulsation time, the phonon cannot be treated as a static perturbation and hence non-adiabatic effects are taken into account using time dependent perturbation theory. Electron-phonon coupling constant is also a key parameter to understand the mobility of carrier due to electron scattering by optical phonons at room temperature and limitation of the maximum current carrying capacity of graphene and nanotubes. All these parameters are determined in the first part of the thesis by performing in-situ transport and Raman measurements on graphene and nanotubes based field effect transistors. The second part of the thesis deals with the interaction of bio-molecules (nucleobases) with the nanotubes and graphene. The binding energies of various nucleobases with nanotubes and graphene have been calculated theoretically using quantum chemical and classical force field calculations, and experimentally from isothermal titration (micro) calorimetry. In this part we also present an experimental study on the dynamics of water confined inside the carbon nanotubes. Proton nuclear magnetic resonance studies have been used to probe the freezing and dynamics of the confined water inside 1.4 nm diameter single walled carbon nanotubes. We have observed that the confined water does not freeze up to 223K. The dynamics of confined water has been studied using pulsed field gradient technique. The decay of spin echo intensity as a function of gradient field shows characteristic features of water confined in unidimensional channels. From the decay profiles the mean squared displacement of water molecules is obtained for different diffusive times, showing an unambiguous evidence of single file diffusion of water molecules inside the nanotubes i.e mean squared displacement varying as square root of time. In the last part, we have developed carbon nanotube based vibration sensor and accelerometer to detect the vibrations of liquid and solid, respectively, using the property of voltage generation in nanotubes due to liquid flow.

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As novel engineered nanoparticles such as single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNT) are extensively used in nanotechnology due to their superior properties, it becomes critical to fully understand their biodistribution and effect when accidently inhaled. There fore, development of animaging technique which allow longitudinal in vivo follow-up of SWCNT effect based on their intrinsic properties is highly desirable. Non invasive free-breathing hyperpolarized 3He lung MRI protocol was developed complementary to proton systemic MR protocol to allow monitoring SWCNT based on their intrinsic iron impurities after intrapulmonary exposition. Combined toproton lung MRI and ex vivo optical and electron microscopy at different time points, this protocol represents a powerful multimodality imaging techniques which allows a full characterization of the biodistribution and biological impacts of iron containing SWCNT. SWCNT was found to produce granulomatous and inflammatory reactions in a time and dose dependent manner with their bio persistenc eafter intrapulmonary exposition.From biological impact evaluations after intrapulmonary exposition towards biomedical applications, SWCNT hold promise for applications in nanomedicine field with their distinct architecture and their novel physicochemical properties. The biodistribution and pharmacological profile of various well-dispersed pristine and functionalized SWCNT were assessed in blood and target tissues after their intra venous administration by longitudinal in vivo susceptibility weighted MRI and their potential effect on liver metabolism by ex vivo HRMAS 1H NMR. No presence ofacute toxicological effect (variation in liver metabolism) was observed confirmed by the absence of clustering in NMR spectra using Principal Component Analysis (specific biomarkers of toxicity).

Due to the aggressive downscaling of the CMOS technology, power and current densities are increasing inside the chip. The limiting current conduction capacity(106 Acm−2)and thermal conductivity(201Wm−1K−1 for Al and 400 Wm−1K−1 for Cu) of the existing interconnects materials has given rise to different electro-thermal issues such a shot-spot formation, electromigration, etc. Exploration of new materials with high thermal conductivity and current conduction has thus attracted much attention for future integrated circuit technology. Among all the elemental materials, carbon nanomaterials (graphene and carbon nanotube) possess exceptionally high thermal (600-7000 Wm−1K−1) and current( ~108 -109 Acm−2)conduction properties at room temperature, which makes them potential candidate for interconnect materials. At the same time development of efficient energy harvesting techniques are also becoming important for future wireless autonomous devices. The excess heat generated at the hot-spot location could be used to drive an electronic circuit through a suitable thermoelectric generator. As the See beck coefficient of graphene is reported to be the highest among all elementary semiconductors, exploration of thermoelectric properties of graphene is very important. This thesis investigates the electrothermal and thermoelectric properties of metallic single walled carbon nanotube (SWCNT) and single layer graphene (SLG) for their possible applications in thermal management in next generation integrated circuits. A closed form analytical solution of Joule-heating equation in metallic SWCNTs is thus proposed by considering a temperature dependent lattice thermal conductivity (κ) on the basis of three-phonon Umklapp, mass-difference and boundary scattering phenomena. The solution of which gives the temperature profile over the SWCNT length and hence the location of hot-spot(created due to the self-heating inside the chip) can be predicted. This self-heating phenomenon is further extended to estimate the electromigration performance and mean-time-to-failure of metallic SWCNTs. It is shown that metallic SWCNTs are less prone to electromigration. To analyze the electro-thermal effects in a suspended SLG, a physics-based flexural phonon dominated thermal conductivity model is developed, which shows that κ follows a T1.5 and T−2 law at lower(<300 K) and higher temperature respectively in the absence of isotopes(C13 atoms). However in the presence of isotopic impurity, the behavior of κ sharply deviates from T−2 at higher temperatures. The proposed model of κ is found to be in excellent match with the available experimental data over a wide range of temperatures and can be utilized for an efficient electro-thermal analysis of encased/supported graphene. By considering the interaction of electron with in-plane and flexural phonons in a doped SLG sheet, a physics-based electrical conductance(σ) model of SLG under self-heating effect is also discussed that particularly exhibits the variation of electrical resistance with temperature at different current levels and matches well with the available experimental data. To investigate the thermoelectric performance of a SLG sheet, analytical models for See beck effect coefficient (SB) and specific heat (Cph) are developed, which are found to be in good agreement with the experimental data. Using those analytical models, it is predicted that one can achieve a thermoelectric figure of merit(ZT) of ~ 0.62 at room temperature by adding isotopic impurities(C13 atoms) in a degenerate SLG. Such prediction shows the immense potential of graphene in waste-heat recovery applications. Those models for σ, κ, SB and Cph are further used to determine the time evolution of temperature distribution along suspended SLG sheet through a transient analysis of Joule-heating equation under the Thomson effect. The proposed methodology can be extended to analyze the graphene heat-spreader theory and interconnects and graphene based thermoelectrics.

Cette thèse est consacrée à l’étude expérimentale des propriétés magnéto-optiques intrinsèques des nanotubes de carbone mono-paroi par spectroscopie de photoluminescence résolue en temps.Un dispositif de microscopie optique confocale de grande ouverture numérique (NA = 0.95),incluant un cryostat magnétique, permet l’étude de nanotubes suspendus à l’échelle individuelle,à température cryogénique (jusqu’à 2 Kelvin) et sous champ magnétique (jusqu’à 7 Tesla). L’évolution des spectres et des déclins de photoluminescence avec le champ magnétique montre l’influence de l’effet Aharonov-Bohm sur les deux excitons singulets de plus basse énergie, c’est à-dire l’exciton fondamental qui est optiquement inactif (exciton noir) et un exciton d’énergie supérieure séparé de quelques milliélectronvolts qui est optiquement actif (exciton brillant). L’interprétation de ces résultats à partir d’un modèle d’équations de taux qui intègre le couplage Aharonov-Bohm entre ces deux excitons permet de déterminer séparément les durées de vie excitoniques et de fournir des informations quantitatives sur la relaxation de l’énergie depuis les niveaux supérieurs photo-excités. La relaxation de l’énergie suite à la photo-excitation de la transition S22 conduit à une efficacité de peuplement de l’état brillant quatre fois plus faible que celle de l’état noir, mais qui augmente significativement lorsque la relaxation se produit depuis les niveaux excitoniques KK’. D’autre part, le bon rapport signal à bruit obtenu dans les spectres de photoluminescence permet de révéler l’existence d’un couplage intrinsèque en champ nul entre l’exciton noir et l’exciton brillant ainsi que le maintien de la mobilité excitonique dans les nanotubes suspendus à la température de l’hélium liquide. / This thesis is dedicated to the experimental study of the intrinsic magneto-optical properties of single-walled carbon nanotubes through time-resolved photoluminescence spectroscopy. Measurements are performed on suspended nanotubes samples at the single-object level using a home-built confocal optical microscope with a large numerical aperture (NA = 0.95) operating at cryogenic temperature (down to 2K) and high magnetic field (up to 7T). The evolution of the photoluminescence spectra and decay signals with increasing magnetic fields shows the influence of the Aharonov-Bohm effect on the two lowest-energy singlet excitons, namely the ground exciton which is optically inactive (dark exciton) and an exciton lying a few millielectron volts higher in energy which is optically active (bright exciton). A model of these results based on rate equations and including the Aharonov-Bohm coupling between these two excitons enables to determine separately the excitons lifetimes and to derive quantitative information on the energy relaxation from the photo-excited higher levels. The energy relaxation following the photo-excitation of the S22 transition leads to a bright state population efficiency four times lower than that of the dark state, but it significantly increases when energy relaxation occurs from the KK’ excitonic levels. Thanks to a good signal to noise ratio, the photoluminescence spectra also reveal the presence of an intrinsic zero-field coupling between the dark and the brightexcitons, as well as an excitonic mobility preserved at liquid helium temperature in suspended nanotubes.

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Most pH sensors operate under potentiometric conditions using a simple two-electrode scheme. More generally, a conventional meter measures the electrical potential of the solution using a glass electrode (pH) against another electrode (reference), whose electrochemical potential is known and insensitive to pH. Modern pH sensors are robust, accurate and low cost, but they are limited by the macroscopic electrode size. They also require electrical contacts and they are often affected by errors associated with the contamination of the small electrode liquid junctions. This thesis targets pH measurements at nanoscale interfaces and explores the miniaturization of the pH sensor for local and remote (optical) measurements. By taking advantage of a non-destructive optical technique based on Raman spectroscopy and of the redox chemistry of metals, this work aims to develop a remote pH sensor based on carbon nanomaterials, namely the single walled carbon nanotube (SWCNT) and the graphene in the form of a single layer. By making use of the highly sensitive Raman response of metallic SWCNTs, we devised a pH responsive optical probe consisting of a SWCNT in direct contact with a platinum redox couple. When placed in a buffer solution, the Pt-SWCNT probe shows strong Raman shifts of the nanotube G-band as a function of pH, which is ascribed to charge transfer doping of the SWCNT reference electrode. Referenced potential measurements are demonstrated using a nanoscale version of the Pt-SWCNT electrode, along with the accurate monitoring of pH in solutions of different ionic strengths. Controlled experiments at a constant ionic strength show pH measurement across the full range between 1 to 12 with a best accuracy of ±500 mpH unit. This study also explores the influence of different transition metals (Pt, Ru and Pd), of semiconducting vs. metallic SWCNTs, and supporting substrates on pH sensing. A model based on electron transfer between the redox metal system and the SWCNT is proposed and tested using electrical conductance measurements. Due to the outstanding properties of graphene, such as a semi metallic behavior and its relatively inert surface, graphene was selected as a second nanomaterial to further investigate the Raman-pH sensing. From the study with SWCNTs, which determines optimal response with the Pt/PtO redox couple, we explore the Raman response of graphene coated with a thin layer of Pt in different buffer solutions of pH between 1 and 12. The spectra show clear evidence of charge transfer and doping of graphene in contact with the platinum redox couple. Significant Raman shift with pH is noted in the region of the G-band and also in D-band, which are consistent with the behavior found with the metallic Pt-SWCNT system. An analysis of the Raman shift provides a better understanding of the doping behavior observed for different pH. The analysis provides an estimate of the potential and confirms the Nernstian behavior of the pH sensor. Redox pH sensing at the nanoscale using carbon nanomaterials solves the main limitations highlighted above, namely coverage of the full pH range and a clear miniaturization of the sensor down to the nanometer scale. Although the accuracy requires further improvement, this work demonstrates for the first time an optical pH sensing scheme that is analogous to a conventional pH sensor equipped with a built-in internal reference. / La plupart des capteurs de pH fonctionnent dans des conditions potentiométriques en utilisant un schéma simple à deux électrodes. Plus généralement, un pH mètre classique mesure le potentiel électrique de la solution à l'aide d'une électrode en verre (pH) contre une autre électrode (référence), dont le potentiel électrochimique est connu et insensible au pH. Les capteurs de pH modernes sont robustes, précis et peu coûteux, mais ils sont limités par les tailles macroscopiques des électrodes. Ils nécessitent également des contacts électriques et sont souvent affectés par des erreurs liées à la contamination des petites jonctions liquides des électrodes. Cette thèse concerne l'amélioration des mesures de pH aux interfaces nanométriques et explore la miniaturisation du capteur de pH pour des mesures (optiques) locales et à distance. En tirant parti d'une technique optique non destructive basée sur la spectroscopie Raman et de la chimie redox des métaux, ce travail vise à développer un capteur de pH à distance à base de nanomatériaux de carbone, à savoir le nanotube de carbone à simple paroi (SWCNT) et le graphène monofeuillet. En utilisant la réponse Raman très sensible des SWCNT métalliques, nous avons conçu une sonde optique sensible au pH constituée d'un SWCNT en contact direct avec un couple redox platine. Lorsqu'elle est placée dans une solution tampon, la sonde Pt-SWCNT montre un fort décalage Raman de la bande G du nanotube en fonction du pH, qui est attribué au dopage par transfert de charge de l'électrode de référence SWCNT. La mesure du potentiel référencé est démontrée à l'aide d'une version nanométrique de l'électrode Pt-SWCNT, ainsi que par la surveillance précise du pH dans des solutions de différentes forces ioniques. Des expériences contrôlées à force ionique constante montrent des mesures de pH sur toute la gamme entre 1 et 12 avec une précision allant jusqu'à ± 500 mpH. Cette étude explore également l'influence de différents métaux de transition (Pt, Ru et Pd), du caractère électronique des SWCNTs et des substrats de soutien sur les détection de pH. Un modèle basé sur le transfert d'électrons entre le système métallique redox et le SWCNT est proposé et testé à l'aide de mesures de conductance électrique. En raison des propriétés exceptionnelles du graphène, telles qu'un comportement semi-métallique et une surface relativement inerte, le graphène a été sélectionné comme deuxième nanomatériau pour approfondir la détection Raman-pH. À partir de l'étude avec les SWCNT, qui détermine qu'une réponse optimale est obtenue avec le couple redox Pt / PtO, nous explorons la réponse Raman du graphène recouvert d'une fine couche de Pt dans différentes solutions tampons avec pH iv entre 1 et 12. Les spectres montrent des preuves claires de transfert de charge et dopage du graphène en contact avec le couple redox platine. Un décalage Raman significatif avec le pH est noté dans la région de la bande G et également dans la bande D, ce qui est cohérent avec le comportement trouvé avec le système Pt-SWCNT métallique. Une analyse du décalage Raman permet de mieux comprendre le comportement de dopage observé à différents pH. L'analyse fournit une estimation du potentiel et confirme le comportement Nerstien du capteur de pH. La détection de pH redox à l'échelle nanométrique avec des nanomatériaux de carbone permet de résoudre les principales limitations mises en évidence ci-dessus, à savoir la couverture de toute la gamme de pH et une miniaturisation claire du capteur jusqu'à l'échelle nanométrique. Bien que la précision nécessite une amélioration supplémentaire, ce travail démontre pour la première fois un schéma de détection optique du pH qui est analogue à un capteur de pH conventionnel équipé d'une référence interne intégrée.