This study examines the social representations of Thailand’s tourism development and related social impact, as perceived by respondents from Bangkok, Thailand. Employing social representations theory (SRT) and social exchange theory (SET), this study adopts qualitative methods to obtain respondents’ representations of tourism development in Bangkok. For the study, forty in-depth interviews and four focus-group interviews were conducted with respondents who were either involved or not involved in the tourism industry. The two main issues considered were, firstly, the determination of the concepts used to perceive tourism development and its social impact among Thai people and, secondly, how social exchanges affected these perceptions. The research suggests that there are four clusters of respondents who share common perceptions and certain socio-economic characteristics. Cluster one: respondents in this cluster are highly involved in tourism and are mostly of high socio-economic status. They share perceptions of Thailand’s tourism development as moving slowly forward, but hampered by red-tape management and bureaucratic problems. This cluster views economic impact in a positive light, especially with regard to the country’s increased revenue, and they perceive of culture as a tourism product. This group viewed environmental impact as a global problem and they mostly expressed the view that the tourism industry has a social responsibility to reduce the causes of pollution. Cluster two: respondents in this cluster are not involved in tourism and have a high socio-economic status. They perceive tourism development as having both positive and negative aspects. Economic impacts were represented both positively, in terms of national revenues and job creation, and negatively, in terms of fostering a materialistic society. Generally, this cluster views the social impact of tourism more negatively. Cluster three: respondents in this cluster are in mid-level-management positions in industries both involved and not involved in the tourism industry. They perceive tourism development in both positive and negative terms. They have favourable views of the economic impact of tourism and view Thai culture as a tourism product. Some respondents in this cluster are concerned about the environmental impact of tourism. Cluster four: respondents in this cluster have a low socio-economic status and include those involved and not involved in the tourism industry. This cluster perceived tourism development in positive terms. They predominantly viewed tourism development as a way to modernise society. This study also found six factors that affect individuals’ social representations of tourism development and social impact: personal benefits, socio-economic background, cultural values, personal traits, and socially derived and direct experiences. Of these, four were intrinsic factors—personal traits, direct experiences, individual benefits, and socio-economic backgrounds. The remaining two - socially derived and cultural values - were extrinsic factors. This study found that extrinsic factors are the main sources of individual representations and lead to hegemonic social representations. The significance and contribution of this research lies in two categories—theoretical and practical. From the theoretical angle, this research makes a number of contributions to the body of knowledge of social representation and social exchange. In terms of a practical contribution, these results can assist the Thai government to review the issues raised and ultimately provide more effective management.

Sammanfattning – ”Generation Ys drivkrafter på arbetsplatsen” Datum: 2/6-2017 Nivå: Kandidatuppsats i företagsekonomi, 15 ECTS Institution: Akademin för Ekonomi, Samhälle och Teknik, EST, Mälardalens Högskola Författare: Alexander Bäcklund, Bill Samuelsson och Simon Levander Titel: Generation Ys drivkrafter på arbetsplatsen Handledare: Kerstin Nilsson Nyckelord: Employer branding, Generation Y, Intern marketing, Loyalty, Social Exchange Theory. Frågeställning: Vilka incitament är det som påverkar den anställde att stanna på en arbetsplats?Matchar företagets employer branding-arbete med de anställdas motivationsfaktorer? Syfte: Syftet med undersökningen är att förklara de incitament som leder till att medarbetare väljer att stanna inom organisationen och jämföra det med företagets human resource-arbete för att behålla anställda. Metod: Undersökningen var av kvalitativ karaktär. Medarbetare samt human resource-chefer på tre företag intervjuades. Intervjumallen baserades på de valda teorierna samt den sekundära information som varit till underlag till studien. Intervjuerna analyserades genom en innehållsanalys och resultatet presenterades i de teman som varit återkommande i empirin. Slutsats: Undersökningen bekräftade den tidigare empirin om hur Generation Y som medarbetare karaktäriseras. Generationen är uppväxta med många möjligheter och är den högst utbildade generationen. Detta ger Generation Y större makt på arbetsmarknaden. Undersökningen visade att medarbetarna inom denna generation var mer drivna av kunskap än av finansiella mål. Att låta medarbetarna växa organiskt är därför ett av de viktigaste incitamenten för ökad lojalitet. Därför bör human resource-avdelningarna nischa sig mot vad Generation Y efterfrågar eftersom de är en majoritet på arbetsmarknaden.

Exit is an inevitable part of any business relationship. However, despite its importance, exit in buyer–supplier relationships is still a poorly understood phenomenon. Building on previous studies, this thesis addressed these concerns by empirically: a) identifying the economic and social antecedents that influence the exit decision; and b) validating how the antecedents of exit are related with the choice of exit strategies. To achieve these objectives, first, a systematic literature review was conducted to identify 82 studies that documented existing research on exit in buyer–supplier relationships. Second, informed by Transaction Cost Economics and Social Exchange Theory, a set of 88 testable hypotheses was developed and a survey captured data from 505 recently terminated relationships involving UK based firms. Finally, for data analysis, statistical techniques were employed including: a) analysis of variance; b) independent sample t–tests; c) multiple logistic regression; and d) multi–nomial logistic regression. The empirical findings of this thesis validated that: a) there are 8 economic and 14 social antecedents that influence the exit decision; b) lending support to extant research on exit, 57 hypotheses were accepted; c) 12 multiple logit models confirmed the relationship between a set of antecedents and exit strategies; and d) 6 multinomial logit models validated the relationship between a set of antecedents and a choice of one exit strategy over another. The results suggest that the influence of antecedents on the choice of exit strategies was subject to how the antecedents were analysed. The contributions of this research to Supply Chain Management literature are that we know now: a) which economic and social antecedents influence the exit decision; b) how individual antecedents affect exit strategies; c) how antecedents combine to affect exit strategies; and d) how antecedents combine to affect the choice of one exit strategy over another. This work provides an exit management tool box comprising a combination of data collection instrument, empirically derived framework and models that enables the managers to timely review the strength and weaknesses of their business relationships and their management processes.

This thesis evaluates why the implementation of a tree plantation project in Chiapas, Mexico, called Scolel Te failed in its attempt to participate in the CDMs scheme. The Scolel Te project brings together farmers and local organisations into a network of exchange of resources that aims at producing an outcome that is only possible through the co-ordination and co-operation of all participants: the emission of carbon certificates. This thesis studies the co-ordination problems that local actors face at the moment of establishing the carbon projects by identifying how formal and informal mechanisms such as contracts, economic incentives, trust, and reputation, create or solve co-ordination problems in the Scolel Te network. The thesis also describes how changes in the distribution of power among actors affect the functioning of the network and how individual's interests and strategic alliances have the potential of derailing the aims of the environmental project. For such purposes, this thesis analyses the exchange relationships among actors at the micro level and identifies how exchange relationships evolve over time. Then an overall picture of the exchange relationships is presented (macro level) with focus in understanding how and why power in the network is exerted. Findings suggest that relying on economic incentives as the main mechanism to generate commitment among communities has failed to create stable exchange relationships in the long term. Trust and reputation are stronger mechanisms to achieve commitment. Moreover, we find that the ability to generate commitment depends highly on the generation of interdependencies between tree plantation projects and the main economic activities of local actors. However, type of land tenure, main economic activity, and pre-existing power relationships embedded at local level are also the principal factors that determine the dynamism of the social exchange relationships and commitment in the long-run. This thesis considers that co-ordination failure occurs because a lack of knowledge about the real dependencies between local actors and their natural resources in the design of CDMs. At macro level, this thesis found that the lack of accountability of the unregulated local carbon market at local level has created unintended incentives for actors to adopt less environmentally responsible strategies and disincentive participation in the CDMs.

This study explores the relationship between journalists and NGOs in news making from a social exchange theory perspective. Drawing on semi-structured reconstruction interviews with journalists from Swedish media and representatives from the communications departments of Swedish NGOs, it examines motivations, contextual influences, and trust building processes that shape the relationship. The findings from the thematic analysis suggest three main characteristics of the journalist-NGO relationship. Firstly, the actors are motivated to interact due to a mutual dependency despite having separate goals. Secondly, the interactions are marked by an initiative imbalance caused by the contextual norm of a ruling media logic. Thirdly, trustworthiness is established between the actors through successful social exchanges which tend to reoccur and rationalize professional processes, ergolong-term relations lead to trust and efficacy. This thesis further concludes that journalists hold an upper hand in the news making process which NGOs accommodate to be recognized by media. Simultaneously, the NGOs play an important part in supplementing and substituting journalistic shortages which enhances their influence on news content. This leads to a relationship of mutual dependency which is sustained through reciprocal social exchanges that build trust and enable efficiency on both an interpersonal micro level, and an organizational meso level.

Marketing executives of traditional retail firms who lack strategies to expand e-commerce business, can experience inhibited growth, higher transaction costs, and a loss of competitive advantage. The purpose of this qualitative single case study was to explore marketing strategies that marketing executives of a traditional retail firm used to improve online sales. Eight purposefully selected marketing executives in the head offices of a large traditional retail business in South Africa who had implemented effective marketing strategies to improve online sales participated in the study. Social exchange theory was the conceptual framework for the study. The data collection process entailed face-to-face semistructured interviews and review of company and industry-specific documentation. Data were coded and analyzed to identify emergent themes: the use of customer relationship management to drive marketing strategies; positive exchange relationships that are primarily measured in economic and benefit-orientated terms; trust that relies on safety, security, and privacy of transactions; and reciprocity in the relationship that is facilitated through electronic word of mouth and social media. The implications for positive social change from increased profitability include increased employment opportunities in the local community, improved working conditions and benefits for employees, and increased charitable contributions locally, thereby improving the quality of life for employees and the community.

This applied dissertation was a study of the relationship between leader-member exchange (LMX) and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) in a federal government organization in Washington, DC. As a result of the organization’s business and leadership challenges, understanding the relationship between a leader and a follower and extra-role behaviors may help to understand how high-quality relationships are developed with staff members that are productive and motivate staff to extend their efforts beyond normal expectations. Productive high-quality relationships demonstrate loyalty, consideration, and affect towards the organization and its leaders. Understanding the relationship between LMX and OCB in a federal government organization may help to produce greater awareness of the factors that lead to high-quality leader-member relationships. Knowing the characteristics of high-quality relationships may promote extra-role behaviors enabling increased job satisfaction and greater results. Federal organizations find that many employees have low job satisfaction. In addition, only 38% of federal workers believe leaders generate high levels of commitment. The researcher employed an explanatory sequential mixed-methods design that included surveys and interviews. The sample study was composed of 50 paired dyads from 433 employees of the target federal agency selected using convenience sampling. Survey instruments were used for demographics, LMX, and OCB to gather data. The results from the LMX and OCB instruments were used to formulate interview questions for a select group from the core sample represented by the top and bottom 5% of raw survey score totals. The targeted federal organization should benefit from this study. The results showed how differences in the quality of the relationship between a leader and a follower related to OCB, or extra-role behaviors and led to recommendations on leader-subordinate relationships.

Purpose: Leadership is one of the very important as well as decisive factors in business environment. Following the Blau’s social exchange theory, this study discussed to analyze the despotic leadership effect on employees' job satisfaction in the Pakistani context. This research also analyzes the indirect association of despotic leadership and job satisfaction through the third variable named, emotional exhaustion (as mediator).  Method: Data is collected through an online self-administrated survey from employees working in the hotel industry of Pakistan. Descriptive analysis and inferential statistics were used. Moreover, conditional process technique was used introduced by Preacher and Hayes. Results: In conclusion, this study illustrates that despotic leadership style of the employees in hotel industry is a main antecedent of poor job satisfaction of the employees and this low job satisfaction becomes More low when employee experience the feelings of emotional exhaustion. Importantly, in this study it is found that emotional exhaustion does not mediate the relationship between despotic leadership and job satisfaction.  Originality: This research had added value to the existing literature on negative supervision in the hospitality sector, specifically in Pakistan. This has suggested organizations to identify prevalent despotic leaders and establish accountability mechanisms within the organizations.

A contagious virus appeared in late 2019 and later led to the COVID-19 pandemic being declared in March 2020. The pandemic has since seen detrimental socioeconomic effects worldwide which led to a halt in the global tourism industries. Sweden has used a different and criticized approach to combating the pandemic compared to other countries. The country has relied on the individual responsibility and the civic liability of its population.Meanwhile, the biggest island in the country, Gotland, has recovered itsvisitation figures during the pandemic and has been voted the most popular destination in Sweden in 2021. This recovery was, however, not without consequences. Residents of the island have voiced their opinions on the topic of the pandemic and tourism online and in newspapers. Residents have expressed fear of the virus spreading further, imposing health risks as restrictions on social distancing have not been kept by tourists. Tourismrelated research on Swedish island destinations to this end is scarce in addition to there being limited research on residents’ attitudes during a pandemic and limited qualitative research on residents’ attitudes in general.This is a qualitative case study that studies the islanders’ perceptions of tourism impacts with the help of semi-structured interviews and letters to the editors. The study uses Social Exchange Theory as the conceptual framework,a theory described as the most logical framework to explain residents’ perceptions of tourism impacts. The results from this study show that the residents perceive more negative impacts than positive impacts. Perceptions of positive impacts are mainly related to the contributions to rural areas. Negative impacts related to water scarcity, littering, the disappearance of natural areas, over-crowding, gentrification, seasonality, the economic interest of the tourism industry during the pandemic, and more.

Syftet med studien är att undersöka betydelsen faktorer kopplade till schemaläggning har för upplevelse av delaktighet och inflytande. De faktorer som undersökts är schemaläggningssystem, organisatoriska aspekter, samarbete, och flexibilitet. De teorier som används är Job demand-control model, Social exchange theory och Structural empowerment theory. Det är en kvalitativ intervjustudie med fem informanter som jobbar hel- eller deltid inom äldrevård eller funktionshinderomsorg i Umeå kommun. Informanterna har tre olika schemasystem med det gemensamma att samtliga informanter får ge önskemål på hur de vill att deras schema för kommande schemaperiod ska se ut. Resultatet visar att informanterna upplever olika grad av delaktighet och inflytande i sitt schemaläggningssystem. Centralt schemastöd är den funktion som minskar upplevelsen av delaktighet och inflytande för majoriteten av informanterna. Ökad utbildning, avsatt tid för schemaläggning, stöd för att öka samarbete på arbetsplatsen och kontakt med Centralt schemastöd är faktorer som sammanfattningsvis föreslås kan öka de anställdas delaktighet och inflytande i schemaläggning.