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Magister Legum - LLM / Piracy attacks off the coast of the Horn of Africa have been on the rise in the recent years. According to a report by Ocean without Borders, although no vessels were hijacked by pirates off the coast of Somalia in 2017, 8 seafarers who were captured in 2016 were still being held in captivity. So far, 545 seafarers have been subjected to piracy attacks.1 The west coast of Africa has also experienced its fair share of piracy attacks. There has been an increase in piracy attacks off the coast of West Africa, two thirds of these attacks occurred off the coast of Nigeria.2The law governing maritime piracy is founded in the United Nations Convention on the law of the sea (UNCLOS).3Article 101 of the Convention defines piracy as; (a) any illegal acts of violence or detention, or any act of depredation, committed for private ends by the crew or the passengers of a private ship or a private aircraft, and directed: i. on the high seas, against another ship or aircraft, or against persons or property on board such ship or aircraft; ii. against a ship, aircraft, persons or property in a place outside the jurisdiction of any State; (b) any act of voluntary participation in the operation of a ship or of an aircraft with knowledge of facts making it a pirate ship or aircraft; (c) any act of inciting or of intentionally facilitating an act described in subparagraph (a) or (b). In addition to the UNCLOS, the Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful acts of Violence against the Safety of Maritime Navigation (herein after referred to as SUA Convention) also criminalises acts related to maritime piracy but which hinder the safe navigation of ships.4 The determining factor for crimes under the SUA Convention is whether the offence is a threat to the safe navigation or is likely to endanger the safe navigation of ships.5 The SUA Convention, however, differs from the UNCLOS in several aspects. First, the Convention does not require that the offence be committed for private ends. Second, the two ships requirement under Article 101 (a) of the UNCLOS is not applicable in the SUA Convention. The offences created in Article 3 of the SUA Convention imply that they may be committed by a perpetrator who is in the same ship with the victim. The SUA Convention does not provide for application of the principle of universal jurisdiction, a State can only exercise jurisdiction over the crimes if it is a party to it.6 Both the SUA Convention7 and the UNCLOS8 provide that the offence must be committed outside a State’s territorial waters. Article 4 of the SUA Convention however further limits the application of the Convention. The Convention does not apply to instances where the ship was not scheduled to navigate out of the territorial waters of the State. This limitation is not applicable under the UNCLOS.

Over the past 13 years, the United States Army has been engaged in armed conflict within Afghanistan. Unfortunately, the United States Army has been forced to evacuate soldiers from the battlefield because of malaria, a parasitic disease that is endemic in Afghanistan. Even though the U.S. Army has adopted an effective chemoprophylaxis protocol, soldiers' adherence to their prescribed medication has been historically low. This research addressed a gap in literature regarding the adherence rates of U.S. Army enlisted soldiers to their prescribed oral malaria chemoprophylaxis. In addition, this research investigated self-reported reasons for soldiers' nonadherence to this medication. The study employed an experimental, correlational research design to aid in understanding the relationship between adherence to malaria chemoprophylaxis and age, gender, military rank, education level, and previous deployment experience. Ninety-four active-duty U.S. Army personnel deployed to Afghanistan participated in the study. The frequency distribution of responses to the 8-questions Morisky Medication Adherence Scale were presented and indicated that for almost all of the questions, the percentage of participants who answered yes was larger than the percentage who answered no, indicating low levels of adherence among the study participants. The findings indicated that age, gender, and perception of risk all significantly contributed to the models predicting medication adherence. With the scientific and medical advances of the 20th and 21st centuries, few if any military personnel should contract malaria. These findings contribute to a greater awareness of medication adherence, which directly supports positive social change within the Armed Forces of the United States.

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), the signature wound of the Iraq and Afghanistan wars, has caused veterans to face numerous and complex challenges within their intimate relationships post-deployment. Although other studies have explored the intimate relationships of veterans, the same level of research has not focused on OEF/OIF veterans from the standpoint of dyadic adaptation using the Dyadic Adaptation Scale (DAS). The purpose of this study was to explore the level of dyadic adaptation in intimate relationships of OEF/OIF veterans who self-reported PTSD and those who did not. More specifically, this study identified the factors that were related to the level of dyadic adaptation for this population. Participants were 126 OEF/OIF veterans who were enrolled in colleges and universities throughout the state of Iowa; provided basic background information in response to a demographics questionnaire; and completed the DAS to yield scores of the participants' dyadic adaptation within their intimate relationships, the Family Crisis Oriented Personal Evaluation Scales (F-COPES) that highlighted their levels of coping, and the Family Inventory of Life Events (FILE) that measured their life stressors within the last 12 months. The results of the correlation, MANOVA, ANOVA, and hierarchical regression analyses provided four major findings and implications. First, among participants with PTSD, DAS was correlated with tours of duty, FILE, F-COPES, and pharmacologic intervention, and among participants without PTSD, DAS was correlated with FILE. Second, the total dyadic adaptation scores for participating OEF/OIF veterans suggested an overall slight level of relationship dissatisfaction. Third, participants who self-reported PTSD had lower DAS total scores than participants who did not self-report PTSD. In addition, there was a significant difference on all four subscales (cohesion, satisfaction, consensus, and affectional expression) of the DAS between the two groups of participants. Fourth, in terms of participants who self-reported PTSD, tours of duty, types of relationships, and life stressors were the only variables that positively affected dyadic adaptation. In contrast, for participants who did not self-report PTSD, FILE was the only variable that affected the dyadic adaptation. These findings have important implications that highlight areas in which clinicians, educators, and individuals within the helping professions can join the Department of Veterans Affairs' initiatives to improve the reintegration of OEF/OIF veterans into their familiar roles post-deployment. Future research should explore the relationship norms pre-deployment and across relationship statutes, the identity of military intimate partners within treatment facilities, and the perceptions of treatment and dyadic adaptation after OEF/OIF veterans receive treatment in the community by civilian providers as compared to treatment in VA facilities.

The main problem investigated is how successful Australia???s citizen soldiers would have been in fulfilling either their anti-invasion or their anti-raid roles between 1919 and 1939. The organization, command, training, equipment, social composition, recruitment and retention of Australia???s citizen soldiers are examined in an effort to discover the solution to this problem. The conclusion reached is that Australia???s citizen soldiers could not have fulfilled their roles, the nature of which was widely debated by British and Australian defence planners because of their differing threat perceptions. Inter-Service rivalry over money also encouraged this debate. Basically, the A.M.F. did not have the equipment and trained troops to enable it to concentrate in time to repel a Japanese raid or invasion. Motor vehicles could have provided this mobility but their expense was prohibitive. However, in other respects the Military Board failed to make the best use of its resources. Slight changes in organization and the command structure might have made the C.M.F., once concentrated, more efficient and better able to fight the Japanese. More attention paid to ensuring that training was imaginative and interesting then might have led to higher retention rates, thereby eliminating the expensive and wasteful requirement for constant recruiting campaigns

The thesis examines individual Scottish soldiers and Scottish regiments abroad in the second half of the seventeenth century, with particular focus on Scottish military service in France and the Netherlands, c.1660-92. The study contends that privately contracted units, of the sort common in the period of the Thirty Years' War (1618-48), evolved into regular standing regiments by the end of the seventeenth century. This process is visible in the altered conditions experienced by professional Scottish officers and ordinary soldiers who served abroad in this period. This study proposes that Britain's foreign policy was primarily affected by that of her two most potent neighbours: France and the Netherlands profoundly affected the attitude of the Stuart monarchs towards their subjects fighting abroad. / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

xv, 179 leaves : / Title page, contents and abstract only. The complete thesis in print form is available from the University Library. / Thesis (M.D.)--University of Adelaide, Dept. of Medicine, 1974

<p>The recruitment, enlistment and use of children younger than fifteen to participate actively in hostilities is prohibited in customary international law as well as in several international legal instruments. The use of child soldiers is, despite of the prohibition, a widespread phenomenon with 300 000 as the estimated number of child soldiers in national armies as well as in various rebel and insurgent groups in the world today. Although the problem is world-wide; most recent focus have been on Africa where children have served and still serve in ongoing conflicts in various functions including but not limited to front line soldiers, messengers, guards and sex-slaves. Many of the world‟s child soldiers are girls that are facing the risks of sexual abuse and discrimination. In this thesis the 1996-2002 civil war in Sierra Leone will serve as an example of a conflict were children were used as soldiers.Prohibition against the use of child soldiers can be found in international legal instruments in both human rights law and international humanitarian law. It can also be found in instruments in the fields of international labor law and prohibition against slavery. The provisions differ in their definition of a child soldier; concerning age limit as well as the child‟s function during the conflict. There are also differences in the responsibility of states to protect children against being used as soldiers. This particularly affects girl soldiers since they often have their primary tasks behind the front line and thus are not usually included in the more narrow definitions of child soldiers.Two courts; the International Criminal Court (ICC) and the Special Court for Sierra Leone (SCSL) are used as examples of enforcement mechanisms. The SCSL as being the first court to deliver convictions for the use of child soldiers as well as thoroughly discussing the illegality of the use of child soldiers has been of importance in the fight against the use of child soldiers. The ICC will be the enforcement mechanism of the future and it has already prosecuted for the use of child soldiers. The SCSL has raised the awareness and started the struggle against impunity for those responsible for using child soldiers but it is the ICC that will have to continue the fight, although with some obstacles to overcome.</p>

<p>Att med militära medel försvara vårt rike då det föreligger ett hot mot vår direkta existens kräver ingen större motivering. Inte heller att soldater stupar i samband med detta. Men med en ny försvarspolitik lämnar vi det fokus som legat på det nationella försvaret. Nu är vi med andra premisser och försvara något som inte akut berör vår egen existens och därav är det inte lika självklart med förluster. I samband med deltagandet i internationell tjänst har Sverige lidit förluster och nu senast i Afghanistan. Till följd av svenska förluster i internationell tjänst har naturligt följt en debatt. I denna uppsats tittar jag på den debatt som följt efter att svenska soldater vid två olika tillfällen stupat i Afghanistan, år 2005 och år 2010. Syftet med denna uppsats är att jämföra de debatter som uppstått till följd av att svenska soldater stupat i internationell tjänst i Afghanistan, detta för att undersöka om skillnader i debatterna kan påvisas och vad dessa kan bero på. Resultatet visar att en skillnad i debatterna föreligger och att den huvudsakliga orsaken till detta är den försämrade säkerhetssituationen i Afghanistan.</p> / <p>By military means to defend our realm where there is a direct threat tor our existence requires no more justification. Neither the soldiers killed in this context. But with a new defence policy, we leave the total focus that has been on national defence. Now we are with other premises and defend something that in not urgent concerns our own existence and hence it is not as obvious with losses. In connection with its participation in international service, Sweden has suffered losses and, most recently in Afghanistan. As a result of losses in the Swedish international service has naturally followed a debate. In this essay I look over the debate which followed after the Swedish soldiers at two different times was killed in Afghanistan in 2005 and 2010. The purpose of this study is to compare the debates that have arisen as a result of Swedish soldiers were killed in international service in Afghanistan, in order to investigate if a difference in the debates can be shown and what they can depend on. The results show that a difference exists in the debates and that the main reason for this is the deteriorating security situation in Afghanistan.</p>

In ca. 75% der weltweiten Kriege und bewaffneten Konflikte sind Kindersoldaten involviert; diese Fakten lassen die Kindersoldatenproblematik zu einem weltumspannenden Problem werden. Weltweit sind ca. 300.000 Kindersoldaten unter achtzehn Jahren in kriegerische Konflikte eingebunden und als Soldaten, Träger, Boten, Minensucher oder in anderweitigen Diensten tätig. Das Schicksal der Kindersoldaten lässt sich vor allem in Asien und Afrika feststellen. Auf beiden Kontinenten werden sogar 7- bis 12-Jährige in kriegerische Auseinandersetzungen verwickelt. Nach dem United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) ist die größte Anzahl an Kindersoldaten in Afrika zu finden, was auch mit der Tatsache in Zusammenhang steht, dass die meisten Konflikte heutzutage auf dem Afrikanischen Kontinent ausgetragen werden. Von großer erziehungswissenschaftlicher Bedeutung ist das Thema, da Kinder und Jugendliche, die mit kriegerischen Konfliktsituationen aufwachsen und unter diesen Bedingungen sozialisiert werden, selbst bereit sind, Gewalt auszuüben. Das gilt selbstverständlich bereits für Kinder und Jugendliche, die zwar nicht als Kombattanten in das Kriegsgeschehen verwickelt werden, aber von denen dennoch Gewalt als ein alltäglicher Zustand erfahren wird. Gesellschaftliche Werte, wie zum Beispiel Hilfsbereitschaft oder der friedliche Umgang miteinander, werden durch die generalisierte Gewalt auf eine harte Probe gestellt. Das Handeln der Erwachsenen ist durch den kriegerischen Kontext bestimmt und die gesellschaftlichen Werte werden dadurch insgesamt verändert. Kinder und Jugendliche, die in kriegerischen Situationen aufwachsen, haben zudem nur selten die Möglichkeit, eine Ausbildung zu absolvieren und sich somit eine Perspektive für die Zukunft abseits des Kampfes zu sichern. Sie fühlen sich häufig allein gelassen, machtlos und schutzlos. In diesen hoffnungslosen Lebensumständen ist ein Anschluss an eine gewaltbereite Gruppe für einige Kinder und Jugendliche ein Weg, Nahrung, Schutz und eine kurzfristige – am bloßen Überleben orientierte - Perspektive zu gewinnen. Werden die Kinder und Jugendlichen zu Mitgliedern gewaltbereiter Gruppen, so wachsen sie in einem System der Gewalt auf, in dem sie lernen, sich mit Gewalt ihren Lebensunterhalt und ihr Überleben zu sichern. Ein Teufelskreis entsteht, in dessen Kern die Frage steht, wie Kinder und Jungendliche, die keinen Frieden und auch keinen friedvollen Umgang mit sich selbst und anderen Personen kennen, als Zivilisten Frieden schaffen können. Die Problematik der Kindersoldaten stellt also nicht nur eine Bedrohung der Kindheit, sondern eine Bedrohung der zivilen Gesellschaftsstruktur dar, gefährdet die regionale Stabilität und somit die Chancen folgender Generationen, dem Schicksal des Kindersoldatentums zu entgehen. / Worldwide about 300,000 child soldiers under eighteen years of age are involved in armed conflicts as soldiers, porters, messengers or other services. The fate of child soldiers is particularly in Asia and Africa identified. On both continents are even 7 - up to 12-year-old implicated in armed conflicts. According to the United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF) the largest number of child soldiers is found in Africa, which is also related to the fact that most conflicts today are held on the African continent. Children and adolescents, who grow up during armed conflict and are socialiesed under these conditions are willing to use violence. They experience violence as a condition of everyday. Social values, such as peaceful dealings with each other, are affected by the generalized violence. Children and young people who grow up in war situations, have also rarely the possibility of training and school education. They often feel alone, helpless and defenceless without having a perspective for their future. In these desperate living conditions an active affiliation with a violent group is for some children and adolescents a way to gain food, protection and a short-term-perspective which is oriented on mere survival.