Thesis (Ed.D.)--Boston University / PLEASE NOTE: Boston University Libraries did not receive an Authorization To Manage form for this thesis or dissertation. It is therefore not openly accessible, though it may be available by request. If you are the author or principal advisor of this work and would like to request open access for it, please contact us at open-help@bu.edu. Thank you. / The purpose of this study was to examine the motives for participation in and withdrawal from sport of Special Olympics (SO) athletes using the frameworks of motivation in sport for athletes without disabilities. Two theoretical frameworks were applied--achievement motivation and self-determination theory (SDT). In addition, previous studies on the application of SDT to understanding motivation in people with intellectual disabilities (ID) were examined. This study included a nationally representative sample of 1,307 families, 579 SO athletes, and 300 SO coaches from 17 randomly selected states in the United States. Athletes and families were interviewed by telephone by trained interviewers from The Gallup Organization. Coaches were also interviewed by telephone, by the author and trained graduate students. Interviews followed scripted protocols that included questions about demographics, SO participation, and motivation for sport participation and withdrawal. The findings of this study suggest that there is similarity in motivation for sport participation between athletes with and without ID, as compared to the literature. The findings suggest, contrary to the literature on motivation for people with ID, that athletes with ID can be intrinsically motivated. However, there was a dichotomy of reasons for sport withdrawal. SO athletes generally left sport due to one of two reasons, personal interest in sport or other activities or some factor outside of the athlete's control, namely access to a local SO program. It is critical to note the relevance of the latter reason for sport withdrawal as it underscores a striking difference between athletes without disabilities and athletes with ID. In all, the theoretical frameworks of motivation have demonstrated relevance on the motivation for sport participation and withdrawal for athletes with ID. However, withdrawal due to external factors suggests a limitation in the application of the theoretical frameworks to adequately describe sport withdrawal for athletes with ID. Overall the results of this study emphasize that sport can also be a powerful experience for people with ID and promote an empowering message--that athletes are athletes, regardless of disability. / 2031-01-02

Problématique: Les modèles de développement à la participation sportive (MDPS) suggèrent que comparativement à la spécialisation hâtive dans une activité physique (AP), la diversification sportive durant l’enfance favorise la participation à l’AP à long terme. Toutefois, peu de documentation scientifique appuie les propos des MDPS. Étant donné l’importance de pratiquer l’AP à tous les âges de la vie, les MDPS pourraient aider à guider les interventions en AP, s’ils étaient confirmés. Les objectifs de cette étude sont donc de 1) décrire les profils de participation aux sports durant l’adolescence chez des jeunes qui ont spécialisé tôt et des jeunes qui ont pratiqué une diversité de sports, et 2) explorer des prédicteurs d’être non participant, participant récréatif ou participant de performance durant l’adolescence. Méthodes: Les participants de l’étude MATCH (n=802), une étude de cohorte prospective sur 5 ans, ont été utilisés comme l’échantillon à l’étude. Durant la première année de l’étude, des enfants âgés de 10,7 (écart-type : 0,7) ans ont rapporté la quantité d’activité physique organisée et non organisée à laquelle ils participaient. Les jeunes ont ensuite été catégorisées dans des profils de participation aux sports chaque année, telles que décrites par le MDPS. La probabilité que le profil de l’année 1 soit maintenu pendant les cinq années de suivi a été déterminée en utilisant des risques relatifs. L’âge, le sexe, la puberté, le revenu et le profil de participation durant l’enfance ont été explorés comme facteurs prédictifs de profil à l’adolescence en utilisant des analyses logistiques polynomiales. Résultats: La diversification sportive, comparativement à la spécialisation hâtive, augmente les chances d’une participation récréative (1.55, 1.18 – 2.03) (RR, IC à 95%) durant l’adolescence et protège contre la non-participation (0.69, 0.51 – 0.93). La spécialisation augmente les chances d’être participants de performance durant l’adolescence (1.65, 1.19 – 2.28), mais ne protège pas contre la non-participation (1.01, 0.70 – 1.47). Ceux qui étaient non-participants à l’enfance étaient presque 2 fois plus de chance d’être non-participant dans les sports durant l’adolescence (1.88, 1.36 – 2.62). L’âge, le sexe, le profil de participation durant l’enfance et le revenu étaient des prédicteurs du profil de participation durant l’adolescence. Conclusion: Conformément avec les MDPS, le profil de participation aux sports durant l’adolescence est associé à celui durant l’enfance. La pratique diversifiée d’activités physiques (AP) durant l’enfance est donc recommandée afin de favoriser une participation à l’AP à long terme. Des interventions devraient être mises en places chez les jeunes qui sont non-participants aux sports et à l’activité physique durant l’enfance afin d’augmenter les chances qu’ils soient actifs durant l’adolescence. / Abstract: Background: Compared to early sport specialization, early sport sampling during childhood increases the likelihood of lifelong participation in physical activity, according to the Developmental Model of Sport Participation (DMSP). However, there is very little quantitative support for this assertion. Given the importance of physical activity participation throughout the lifespan, the model could be used to inform and physical activity guidelines for youth if confirmed. Specifically, the objectives of this thesis were to 1) describe the natural course of sport participation over five years among children who are early sport samplers or early sport specializers, and 2) explore sport profile (i.e. performance participation, recreational participation and non-participation) predictors during adolescence. Methods: MATCH, an ongoing mixed methods prospective cohort study, participants (n = 802) were classified in sport profiles in the first year (and every year thereafter) of the study based on the quantity of unorganised and organised physical activity in which they participated and definitions offered by the DMSP. Tracking of childhood (year 1) sport profile was assessed using relative risk ratios. Age, sex, income, puberty status, and childhood sport profile were identified as potential predictors of adolescent sport profile and were tested using multinomial logisitic regression. Results: Compared to specialization, sport sampling during childhood increased the likelihood of recreational participation (1.55, 1.18 – 2.03) (RR, 95% CI) during adolescence and decreased the likelihood of non-participation (0.69, 0.51 – 0.93). Early specialization increased the likelihood of performance participation (1.65, 1.19 – 2.28) but did not protect against non-participation (1.01, 0.70 – 1.47) through follow-up. Non-participants had nearly twice the likelihood of remaining non-participants compared to other study participants (1.88, 1.36 – 2.62). Age, sex, income and childhood sport profile predicted sport profile during adolescence. Conclusion: Confirming the assertions made by the DMSP, childhood sport profile predicts adolescent sport profile. Sampling during childhood is recommended to facilitate long term physical activity participation. Interventions should aim to increase physical activity levels amongst insufficiently active children to increase the likelihood of being active during adolescence.

The Swedish Sports Confederation is striving towards supporting youth develop a lifelong relationship with sport, but statistics show a tendency of dropouts around the age of 12. This study aims to nuance the understanding of coaches’ perceptions of youth sports within martial arts. The research questions were: How are central aspects of sport for youths valued among coaches? What opinions exist among the coaches concerning involvement and their role in relation to that? Structured interviews were conducted with eight participants. The data were analyzed by forming concentrations of responses which then was categorized. Finally, the data were interpreted in a broader context and compared with previous research. The result shows that joy and development were seen as central parts of youth sport. Improvement of physical and mental health was viewed as important in a long- term perspective. The competitive part of the sport was rated as the least important. Regarding participation, the most common definition by the coaches was inclusion in decision-making, preferably a physical kind such as voicing out opinions or suggestions. However, sometimes participation of children was thought to interfere with or obstruct the plan of a training session and therefore the two components need to be balanced. The role of the coach was perceived as relatively essential for ensuring that children or adolescents were and felt included. This paper concludes that there are several aspects to consider in youth sport. Furthermore, the coaches were seen to have a significant role in creating an open environment for children and adolescents to be involved.

Lesbian athletes face criticism and discrimination from coaches, fans, and society. Researchers have suggested that female sport is stigmatized due to perceived masculinity and homosexuality, causing athletes to focus on heterosexual and feminine behaviors. The dichotomy of athleticism and femininity in sports has been extensively studied in the heterosexual population. However, the impact of the overt discrimination and pressure to conform to societal standards of femininity and heterosexuality has not been studied in lesbians. Therefore, the purpose of this quantitative study utilizing survey design was to examine the relationship among sport participation, gender schema, athletic identity, and internalized homophobia. A network-based snowball sampling method was used to survey 226 lesbians, 18 years of age and older. Surveys issued via Internet included the Bem Sex Role Inventory, Athletic Identity Measurement Scale, and the Lesbian Internalized Homophobia Scale. Data were analyzed using Chi-square, t tests, and Pearson Correlation. No significant difference in sports participation was found in lesbians with different gender schemas. There was a significant difference in the athletic identity of participants who were more or less active in sports, but there was no significant difference in internalized homophobia for participants who were more or less active in sports. There was no relationship between athletic identity and internalized homophobia. This study contributes to the existing literature on women and sport. It promotes social change by further investigating the influence of gender schema, athletic identity, and internalized homophobia related to behaviors and attitudes in sports.

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The purpose of this study was two-fold: First, to qualitatively explore mainstreamed hard of hearing adolescent athletes' psychosocial development, centering on their perspectives of cultural identity, self-concept, and self-esteem and the interaction of these psychological constructs with sport participation. Second, to follow-up with a quantitative measure objectively assessing the impact of sport participation on these psychological domains. Participants were hard of hearing adolescent athletes in the Northeast Atlantic Region, all of whom were currently engaging in some level of sport participation at the time of the study. Five mainstreamed hard of hearing athletes, three male and two female, participated in a semi-structured interview format. Interviews were performed at a time and place convenient for the participant. The purpose of the interview was to elicit detailed, authentic, rich content related to their experiences as hard of hearing athletes both in school and on the field and how these experiences have impacted their self-concept, cultural identification, and social lives. Utilizing grounded theory and adapting the consensual qualitative methods described by Hill, Knox, Thompson, Williams, and Hess (2005), seven conceptual categories and additional sub-categories were derived from the coding process. These conceptual categories and subthemes were found: (a) hearing loss, consisting of severity, age of diagnosis, assistive devices, and familial hearing status, (b) sporting background, sporting initiation, and current team standing, (c) parental roles, consisting of parental support of hearing and parental support of sport, (d) team experience, consisting of teammates, coaches, and opponents, (e) adaptations to being hard of hearing, consisting of working with coaches, on the field and in the classroom, (f) self-esteem/self-concept, consisting of biculturalism, self identity, and on the field mentality, and (g) benefits of sports, consisting of confidence, friends, and other. Participants also completed the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale, which provides a total self-concept score and scores across six subscales: physical appearance and attributes, intellectual and school status, happiness and satisfaction, freedom from anxiety, behavioral adjustment, and popularity. All participants scored "average" or "above average" on total self-concept and the six subscales. The population did not consist of enough participants for a quantitative analysis. / Kinesiology

The COVID-19 pandemic greatly altered the ways in which families could engage in youth sport and physical activity (SPA). These forced changes might have implications for families’ preferences and conceptualization of value of youth SPA post-pandemic. Therefore, the purpose of this dissertation was to understand the impacts of a global pandemic (i.e., COVID-19) on youth SPA by exploring consumers’ (i.e., families in the Ontario) experiences with youth SPA, and examining if and how preferences for returning to SPA might be shifting and affecting perceptions of value post-pandemic. This dissertation was guided by Social Ecology Theory (i.e., behaviour is a function of the sociocultural and built environment) and consumer behaviour theory (e.g., disconfirmation paradigm; if expectations are met or exceeded, consumers will be satisfied). A collective case study methodology with an exploratory mixed-methods design was employed. First, focus group interviews were conducted with families in Ontario (n=14) followed by semi-structured interviews with youth sport providers in Ontario (n=12) to understand these groups’ experiences with youth SPA during the pandemic and post-pandemic intentions. Finally, for generalizability, questionnaires were administered to parents in Ontario (n=550) to assess families’ experiences with, preferences for, and conceptualization of value of youth SPA pre, during, and post-pandemic. Overall, families experienced decreases in youth SPA in all contexts considered (i.e., organized SPA, non-organized SPA, travel for SPA, diversity of SPA). However, the way families felt about these changes (i.e., satisfaction) varied. Families’ socioecological circumstances and their satisfaction with the changes to their youth SPA during the pandemic shaped their preferences and conceptualizations of value for youth SPA post-pandemic. While the forced changes to youth SPA contributed to reconceptualization of value for families with means and access to participation opportunities, families without these means were, and are likely to continue to struggle to access youth SPA opportunities.

<p> Over two-thirds of youth participate in a structured sport, making it a vital context in which transactional relations with cognitive development can occur. Yet, little is known about how these constructs inform one another across childhood. Most previous studies have focused on health benefits of sport participation, or on demographic and family characteristics as predictors of participation. Though some previous literature has explored the cognitive impacts of sport participation during childhood, as well as whether early cognitive skills may predict later sport participation, critical gaps remain. Specifically, there is a need to investigate the extent to which there are longitudinal relations between these constructs as well as the nature of those associations throughout childhood. Thus, this dissertation examines whether: (1) participating in sports during preschool predicts kindergarten cognitive outcomes (i.e., executive functioning, math, language, literacy), (2) executive functioning and pre-academic skills (i.e., math, language, literacy) at 54 months predict participating in a structured sport (open-skilled, closed-skilled) in third and fifth grade, and (3) if there are bidirectional relations between executive functioning and academic outcomes (i.e., math, language, literacy) and structured sports (open-skilled, closed-skilled) in third and fifth grade. Findings from this dissertation indicated that associations between sport participation and cognition in children are complex, such that the direction of these associations likely depend on developmental period and conceptualization of sport. In particular, there may be positive transactional relations between early sport and cognitive skills, but not in middle childhood. Further, the results suggest that there may be bidirectional relations between open-skilled sport participation and executive functioning across childhood. In addition, almost all associations between closed-skilled sport participation and cognitive skills were nonsignificant. Thus, open-skilled sport participation may demand more cognitive resources than closed-skilled sport participation. Results from this dissertation reinforce the need to use intensive longitudinal data analysis to continue exploring transactional relations between sport participation, executive functioning, and academic skills. Finally, it is vital to reconsider how we evaluate sport participation in children and to include context-specific measures of participation that likely influence relations between these constructs. </p>