O padrão de expansão física das ocupações urbanas nas principais regiões metropolitanas brasileiras tem deixado um legado de graves problemas urbanos e ambientais. Muitos desses problemas estão relacionados à ocupação de áreas naturais de importância ambiental tanto por moradias populares produzidas na ilegalidade, quanto por usos associados à atividade turística e de lazer, à indústria e ao comércio. Tal processo vem ocorrendo com maior intensidade desde a década de 1980. O objetivo deste estudo é evidenciar um aspecto desse processo de urbanização, que resulta em impactos ambientais. Busca-se relacionar expansão urbana, natureza das áreas impactadas e proteção legal existente, exemplificando diferentes contextos metropolitanos, usando como ferramenta de análise recursos de sensoriamento remoto e geoprocessamento. O processamento de imagens de satélite é um recurso auxiliar utilizado nos estudos urbanos e ambientais que possibilita longos períodos de análise e grandes escalas. A cartografia elaborada compreende a evolução das manchas urbanas, das áreas protegidas por lei e dos biomas e cobertura vegetal presentes nos diferentes contextos analisados e permite uma visão diversificada sobre a natureza e os serviços ambientais comprometidos pelo processo de urbanização em curso. / The pattern of the urban sprawl in the most important Brazilian metropolitan areas has left a legacy of grave urban and environmental problems. Several of these problems are related to the land use in natural areas of great environmental importance, such as illegally built low class dwellings, as well as use associated to tourism and leisure, industry and commerce. This process has been occurring more intensely since the 1980s. The aim of this study is to highlight an aspect of this urbanization process that results in environmental impact. It is intended to make connections among urban expansion, the nature of the areas under impact and existing legal protection, exemplifying different metropolitan contexts and using as analysis tool the resources of remote sensor and data geographic processing. The satellite image processing is an auxiliary resource used in urban and environmental studies enabling long periods of analysis and large scales. The cartography produced, which comprises the evolution of the urban sprawl, the areas protected by law, the ecosystems and the vegetation cover present in the different analyzed contexts, allows a diversified view of the nature and environmental services compromised by the process of urbanization in course.

The urban sprawl cannot be any longer perceived as a solely esthetic and socioeconomic problem. The process of shift of population and activities from city centre to its fringe has significant environmental impacts as well. Typicaly, suburban areas are spatially and therefore energetically demanding, the landscape is being fragmented by their presence and the natural environment of organisms is severely modified or destroyed. Soil sealing and impervious surfaces lead to altered heat and moist regimes, infiltration rate and runoff. Soils at city fringe - usually very productive and valuable - are endangered by total loss of all of their functions, both environmental and agricultural. That is also the case of Prague surroundings, where high quality soils, which are supposed to be protected by the law, are irreversibly degraded by urban sprawl. Logistic regression model in this work has proved that commercial urban sprawl tends to occur in areas with a good logistic position and a level terrain. The awareness of factors, which are favorable for urban sprawl, can be utilized in future to make local planning more effective and prevent sealing of high-quality agricultural soils, which are currently built on. By sprawling on an agricultural land, Czech Republic loses its natural wealth and valuable...

O padrão de expansão física das ocupações urbanas nas principais regiões metropolitanas brasileiras tem deixado um legado de graves problemas urbanos e ambientais. Muitos desses problemas estão relacionados à ocupação de áreas naturais de importância ambiental tanto por moradias populares produzidas na ilegalidade, quanto por usos associados à atividade turística e de lazer, à indústria e ao comércio. Tal processo vem ocorrendo com maior intensidade desde a década de 1980. O objetivo deste estudo é evidenciar um aspecto desse processo de urbanização, que resulta em impactos ambientais. Busca-se relacionar expansão urbana, natureza das áreas impactadas e proteção legal existente, exemplificando diferentes contextos metropolitanos, usando como ferramenta de análise recursos de sensoriamento remoto e geoprocessamento. O processamento de imagens de satélite é um recurso auxiliar utilizado nos estudos urbanos e ambientais que possibilita longos períodos de análise e grandes escalas. A cartografia elaborada compreende a evolução das manchas urbanas, das áreas protegidas por lei e dos biomas e cobertura vegetal presentes nos diferentes contextos analisados e permite uma visão diversificada sobre a natureza e os serviços ambientais comprometidos pelo processo de urbanização em curso. / The pattern of the urban sprawl in the most important Brazilian metropolitan areas has left a legacy of grave urban and environmental problems. Several of these problems are related to the land use in natural areas of great environmental importance, such as illegally built low class dwellings, as well as use associated to tourism and leisure, industry and commerce. This process has been occurring more intensely since the 1980s. The aim of this study is to highlight an aspect of this urbanization process that results in environmental impact. It is intended to make connections among urban expansion, the nature of the areas under impact and existing legal protection, exemplifying different metropolitan contexts and using as analysis tool the resources of remote sensor and data geographic processing. The satellite image processing is an auxiliary resource used in urban and environmental studies enabling long periods of analysis and large scales. The cartography produced, which comprises the evolution of the urban sprawl, the areas protected by law, the ecosystems and the vegetation cover present in the different analyzed contexts, allows a diversified view of the nature and environmental services compromised by the process of urbanization in course.

Dados reais apontam um expressivo aumento do consumo de combustível no Brasil e no mundo, além de um crescimento acelerado da população urbana. Ambos os processos vem ocorrendo sem um controle adequado no país e, como conseqüência, têm surgido grandes deseconomias urbanas, tais como: congestionamentos, poluição ambiental, consumo exagerado de combustíveis e uso inadequado do espaço viário. Neste contexto, quaisquer iniciativas no intuito de frear estas deseconomias são relevantes e oportunas, tanto que pesquisas nacionais e internacionais vêm sendo realizadas buscando entender melhor os fatores que mais interferem na energia gasta com transportes. O objetivo deste trabalho é investigar a relação entre o consumo de energia com transportes e algumas variáveis espaciais e sócio-econômicas dos municípios do estado de São Paulo com população superior a 50 mil habitantes. A caracterização dos padrões de forma das áreas urbanizadas foi viabilizada graças aos recursos de um Sistema de Informações Geográficas, que possibilitaram determinar com relativa precisão as variáveis espaciais das manchas urbanas a partir de imagens de satélite georeferenciadas. Uma vez levantados todos os dados possíveis, procedeu-se a uma análise através do emprego de Redes Neurais Artificiais, ferramenta que possibilita identificar e classificar as variáveis de acordo com suas importâncias relativas no consumo de energia, que é a variável dependente do modelo. Os resultados encontrados para as cidades paulistas pesquisadas confirmam a tendência internacional, sobretudo no que concerne à grande relevância da densidade populacional urbana, juntamente com outras características sócio-econômicas, sobre o consumo de energia com transportes. Variáveis como a população urbana, a densidade populacional e o nível de empregos no comércio revelaram-se como as de maior importância relativa no contexto analisado. / The world has been experiencing in recent years an unprecedented increase in the amount of fuel consumed for transportation purposes, in addition to a fast growth of the urban population. Those conditions were also found in Brazil, where they have produced several problems for urban areas, such as: traffic congestion, environmental pollution, high fuel consumption, and an improper use of the urban space. In such a context, any attempt to reduce those problems and their consequences is relevant and opportune. That is the reason why a considerable research effort is being directed to the issue at both national and international levels, in order to better understand the factors that most significantly contribute for the high levels of energy use for transportation.The aim of this work is to investigate the relationship between energy consumption for transportation and a few selected variables related to urban form and socioeconomic characteristics of urbanized areas with more then 50,000 inhabitants located in the state of São Paulo. The boundaries of the urbanized areas were obtained from satellite images georeferenced in a Geographic Information System environment, which also offered the tools for the analysis of some spatial attributes. After the spatial and socioeconomic data were combined in a single database, they were then analyzed using Artificial Neural Network models, in order to identify variables that are relevant to energy consumption for transportation, along with their relative weights.The results found with the Brazilian cities selected for the current study confirmed the trend observed in several countries worldwide, in which urban density played an important role influencing energy use for transportation. In the case studied here, other relevant input variables that considerably influenced the energy consumed for transportation were population and employment level.

Os elevados índices de crescimento urbano alcançado pelas grandes cidades nas últimas décadas afetam diretamente o processo organizado de expansão urbana, pois os atuais níveis de desenvolvimento da infra-estrutura nas grandes cidades não acompanham o ritmo do crescimento populacional atual. Frente a isso, os resultados deste cenário podem ser vistos através do surgimento de ocupações irregulares que comprometem o desenvolvimento da cidade de maneira ordenada, além de atingirem áreas de preservação ambiental, consideradas fundamentais para se manter padrões desejáveis na qualidade de vida. Com isso, a necessidade de se obter mapeamentos de maneira rápida e confiável se torna cada vez mais evidente, pois decidir sobre as estratégias e projetos referentes ao planejamento urbano depende da existência de um conjunto atualizado de informações sobre as áreas de expansão. Sendo assim, a obtenção de mapeamentos em áreas urbanas por meio de dados adquiridos com alta resolução espacial provenientes de imageamento orbital e aerotransportado se torna cada vez mais presente e necessária. O surgimento de novos sensores aerotransportados com capacidade de adquirir dados de imageamento com alta resolução espacial, como se destaca o sensor HRSC-AX (High Resolution Stereo Camera Airbone eXtended), permite inovar e automatizar soluções referentes aos problemas de mapeamento. O sensor HRSC-AX, desenvolvido pelo Instituto Aeroespacial de Berlim na Alemanha (Deutsches Zentrum für Luft und Raumfahrt; DLR), possui como característica a capacidade de adquirir dados de imageamento com alta resolução espacial nas faixas espectrais referentes ao visível (RGB) e infravermelho próximo (NIR), além de imagens estéreo fotométricas que permitem gerar modelos digitais de superfície (DSM). Essa característica permite a utilização desses dados em processos de classificação de imagens de alta resolução. Dessa forma, o presente trabalho apresenta e valida uma proposta metodológica para caracterizar objetos do cenário urbano utilizando índices de realce extraídos de dados do sensor HRSC-AX. Com base nos resultados obtidos é possível concluir que a proposta apresentada fornece uma ferramenta alternativa para a obtenção de informações sobre os objetos presentes no cenário urbano como edificações, áreas verdes, áreas sombreadas, áreas de solo exposto e objetos asfaltados de maneira rápida e confiável, além de prover subsídios para a tomada de decisões no planejamento urbano. / The heightened rates of urban growth attained by the large cities during the last decades affect directly the urban sprawl as an organized process, whereas the current development rates of the infrastructure do not keep up with the population increase of today. As a visible result of this scenario, irregular occupations appear, compromising an organized development of the city, besides jeopardizing environmental preservation areas, essential to the maintenance of desirable standards of quality of life. Hence, the ever growing necessity of obtaining maps in a fast and reliable fashion is evident, because the decision-making on strategies and projects, regarding to urban planning, is based on the existence of an updated set of information about the expanding areas. Therefore, the attainment of urban area maps, which are based in high resolution data acquired through orbital and airborne imagery, become increasingly present and necessary. The appearing of new airborne sensors, with the capacity to acquire high resolution image data, as, for instance, the HRSC-AX (High Resolution Stereo Camera Airbone eXtended), allows the innovation and automation of solutions related to problems in mapping. The HRSC-AX sensor, developed by the Berlin based German Aerospace Center (Deutsches Zentrum für Luft und Raumfahrt; DLR), is characterized by its capacity to acquire imagery data with high resolution in the visible spectral channels (RGB) as for the near infrared (NIR), besides the possibility to extract stereo photometric imagery, allowing the generation of digital surface models (DSM). This feature allows the improvement of the classification process of high resolution imagery. Hence, the present study presents and validates a methodological proposal to characterize objects in the urban scenario, using enhancement indexes extracted from HRSC-AX data. Based on the obtained results, it is possible to conclude that the presented proposal supplies an alternative tool for the obtainment of information regarding the objects that are present in the urban scenario, such as buildings, vegetation areas, shadowed areas, bare soil and asphalt covered objects, in a fast and reliable manner, besides allowing the decision-making in urban planning.

Dados reais apontam um expressivo aumento do consumo de combustível no Brasil e no mundo, além de um crescimento acelerado da população urbana. Ambos os processos vem ocorrendo sem um controle adequado no país e, como conseqüência, têm surgido grandes deseconomias urbanas, tais como: congestionamentos, poluição ambiental, consumo exagerado de combustíveis e uso inadequado do espaço viário. Neste contexto, quaisquer iniciativas no intuito de frear estas deseconomias são relevantes e oportunas, tanto que pesquisas nacionais e internacionais vêm sendo realizadas buscando entender melhor os fatores que mais interferem na energia gasta com transportes. O objetivo deste trabalho é investigar a relação entre o consumo de energia com transportes e algumas variáveis espaciais e sócio-econômicas dos municípios do estado de São Paulo com população superior a 50 mil habitantes. A caracterização dos padrões de forma das áreas urbanizadas foi viabilizada graças aos recursos de um Sistema de Informações Geográficas, que possibilitaram determinar com relativa precisão as variáveis espaciais das manchas urbanas a partir de imagens de satélite georeferenciadas. Uma vez levantados todos os dados possíveis, procedeu-se a uma análise através do emprego de Redes Neurais Artificiais, ferramenta que possibilita identificar e classificar as variáveis de acordo com suas importâncias relativas no consumo de energia, que é a variável dependente do modelo. Os resultados encontrados para as cidades paulistas pesquisadas confirmam a tendência internacional, sobretudo no que concerne à grande relevância da densidade populacional urbana, juntamente com outras características sócio-econômicas, sobre o consumo de energia com transportes. Variáveis como a população urbana, a densidade populacional e o nível de empregos no comércio revelaram-se como as de maior importância relativa no contexto analisado. / The world has been experiencing in recent years an unprecedented increase in the amount of fuel consumed for transportation purposes, in addition to a fast growth of the urban population. Those conditions were also found in Brazil, where they have produced several problems for urban areas, such as: traffic congestion, environmental pollution, high fuel consumption, and an improper use of the urban space. In such a context, any attempt to reduce those problems and their consequences is relevant and opportune. That is the reason why a considerable research effort is being directed to the issue at both national and international levels, in order to better understand the factors that most significantly contribute for the high levels of energy use for transportation.The aim of this work is to investigate the relationship between energy consumption for transportation and a few selected variables related to urban form and socioeconomic characteristics of urbanized areas with more then 50,000 inhabitants located in the state of São Paulo. The boundaries of the urbanized areas were obtained from satellite images georeferenced in a Geographic Information System environment, which also offered the tools for the analysis of some spatial attributes. After the spatial and socioeconomic data were combined in a single database, they were then analyzed using Artificial Neural Network models, in order to identify variables that are relevant to energy consumption for transportation, along with their relative weights.The results found with the Brazilian cities selected for the current study confirmed the trend observed in several countries worldwide, in which urban density played an important role influencing energy use for transportation. In the case studied here, other relevant input variables that considerably influenced the energy consumed for transportation were population and employment level.

Land cover change detection in urban areas provides valuable data on loss of forest and agricultural land to residential and commercial development. Using Landsat 5 Thematic Mapper (1991) and Landsat 7 ETM+ (2000) imagery of Gwinnett County, GA, change images were obtained using image differencing of Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), principal components analysis (PCA), and Tasseled Cap-transformed images. Ground truthing and accuracy assessment determined that land cover change detection using the NDVI and Tasseled Cap image transformation methods performed best in the study area, while PCA performed the worst of the three methods assessed. Analyses on vegetative and vegetation changes from 1991- 2000 revealed that these methods perform well for detecting changes in vegetation and/or vegetative characteristics but do not always correspond with changes in land use. Gwinnett County lost an estimated 13,500 hectares of vegetation cover during the study period to urban sprawl, with the majority of the loss coming from forested areas.

El eje central de la investigación de tesis doctoral son las transformaciones espaciales, funcionales y estructurales, ocurridas dentro del ámbito central del Camp de Tarragona, en un período de tiempo específico (1977 - 2008) y con especial énfasis en los cambios de localización de las piezas de producción, distribución y consumo, y su impacto sobre el territorio. Para introducir el concepto de la metropolización del territorio, a la investigación de caso le antecede un apartado teórico que revisa sus diferentes modalidades y sus causas estructurales, distinguiéndose entre los ámbitos norteamericano y europeo.El interés principal de esta investigación es observar los cambios ocurridos en un lapso de tiempo determinado en regiones urbanas con presencia de ciudades intermedias que contengan fenómenos de dispersión, aglomeración y polarización, semejantes a los fenómenos ocurridos en regiones metropolitanas de primer orden. Se busca con ello, demostrar la tendencia actual de las ciudades intermedias a seguir aunque con caracteres específicos , procesos similares de metropolización territorial que han seguido las regiones urbanas mayores.Además de identificar las transformaciones en las relaciones jerárquicas y resaltar las nuevas estructuras territoriales generadas por las lógicas de localización de las piezas productivas, de distribución y de consumo (polaridades, clusters, dispersiones, redes), se verifica la noción general de una tendencia a la "terciarización" del espacio metropolitano y se detectan hechos innovadores (fenómenos que por su carácter de novedad, tienen una influencia enorme sobre su entorno) que tienden a la consolidación de un territorio sectorizado y en el que se ha observado una transformación en la escala de las operaciones urbanísticas (de la manzana al sector).El objetivo principal de la investigación es aumentar el conocimiento, ante la escasez de estudios urbanos apoyados en análisis espaciales de análisis gráficos, sobre la metropolización de ciudades intermedias y su relación con sistemas metropolitanos mayores.Se plantea a priori, que es un proceso en curso la terciarización del espacio en regiones metropolitanas intermedias como el Camp de Tarragona; que la localización de las grandes piezas de producción y consumo obedecen más a una lógica regional de integración / servicio a una red metropolitana mayor que a una lógica de ordenación local y que, la metropolización del territorio del ámbito central del Camp de Tarragona, por la celeridad de sus trasformaciones y la escala del territorio, podría convertirlo en una conurbación de tamaño considerable.Dichos planteamientos han sido verificados mediante la elaboración y análisis de mapas temáticos que consignan las transformaciones territoriales en un período temporal específico y que permiten, mediante la elaboración de un pequeño sistema de información territorial y su comparación, un análisis cualitativo (del espacio transformado) y cuantitativo (la medición de las transformaciones urbanizadoras). Los mapas elaborados son la expresión de las tendencias, corredores específicos, polarizaciones o cambios de uso de suelo principales que se han producido. / The main axis of this PhD thesis are the spatial, functional and structural transformations, occurred within the central area of the Camp of Tarragona, between 1977 - 2008, with special emphasis on locational changes of production, distribution and consumption and its impact on the built environment. To introduce the concept of territorial metropolisation, the investigation is preceded by a theoretical section which reviews its different ways structural causes, comparing both cases: the North American and the European one. The main goal of this research is to observe and compare changes in clusters of intermediate cities that shows dispersion, agglomeration and polarization, in a similar way bigger metropolitan areas had revealed through time. The aim is thus to show the current trend of intermediate cities to follow similar processes of metropolisation although with specific characteristics that have been developed before by larger urban areas. Aside of identifying the changes in the hierarchical relationships and highlighting the new territorial structures generated by the postindustrial logic of localization of production, distribution and consumption (polarities, clusters, dispersions, networks), we verify the hypothesis that states there is a general tendency of metropolitan areas to shift their land use into services, by detecting innovative events, such as the transformation of big portions of land into service oriented spaces. The main goal of this research is to increase awareness about the shortage of urban studies of the metropolisation process that has been happening in intermediate cities, phenomena widely studied for larger metropolitan areas. The investigation seeks to demonstrate how these intermediate cities tend to follow a different way of metropolisation, mainly because they are subdued to what happens in larger metropolitan areas, and they follow a regional logic in an attempt to be part of a major regional network, rather than been (the metropolisation) a local urban initiative. Also, we had foreseen that The central area of the Camp of Tarragona due to the rapidness of the changes observed , could be in a years from now a new form of conurbation, yet still hosting metropolization processes. These approaches have been verified by developing and analyzing thematic maps, which records territorial changes in a specific time range and that allow us, through the development of a small GIS, a qualitative analysis (what and in what had the space been transformed) and a quantitative one (how many). The produced maps have answered questions regarding trends, specific corridors, polarizations, or changes in land use at large scale.

Denna uppsats visar att det finns hyresskillnader mellan områden i Örebro trots att en hyresreglering råder. Dessa hyresskillnader kan förstärka boendesegregering som i sin tur kan leda till ökad skolsegregering. Eftersom skolsegregering kan leda till skillnader i utbildningsresultat kan detta på sikt bidra till ytterligare inkomstskillnader och boendesegregering. Ett särskilt problem är att personer och familjer som erhåller försörjningsstöd begränsas i sina val av bostad samt skola. I uppsatsen studeras hur denna regel slår i Örebro. Drygt tre procent av befolkningen i Örebro kommun erhöll försörjningsstöd år 2009. Örebro kommun ligger på andra plats i Sverige när det gäller etnisk boendesegregation efter Göteborg. I uppsatsen analyseras hur hyrorna i det allmännyttiga bostadsbolaget i Örebro varierar på grund av avståndet till centrum. En höjning av kostnadstaket för boende i Örebro, som för närvarande övervägs av kommunen, skulle halvera avståndet till centrum från fyra till två kilometer för en familj med försörjningsstöd. Uppsatsen visar också att det finns ett samband mellan boendesegregering mätt som skillnader i hyresnivåer och skolsegregering mätt som skillnader i genomsnittligt meritvärde för grundskolornas avgångsklasser.

The effects of expansion of cities on the fringe area are still the common problems of several countries as well as Turkey. The main problem stemming from rapid urban growth was described as urban sprawl that has been used as waste of land, time, and natural resources. Although sprawl becomes usually unplanned, uncontrolled, and uncoordinated, it can be claimed that some local and national government policies triggers the urban sprawl by creating planned areas more than required. The growth management policies are utilized to provide a responsible balance between development and the infrastructure needed to manage the impacts of development and to control urban sprawl. Four types of urban containment techniques have been used in several countries to control urban sprawl according to fundamental purposes of where to grow and where not to grow. These are greenbelt, urban growth boundary, urban service area and adjacent area. The main objective of this thesis is to investigate the impacts of urban growth on physical development of metropolitan cities and to critically evaluate the raison d&#039 / &ecirc / tre and changing meaning of adjacent areas concept in Turkish urban planning experience in a historical context. Ankara planning experiences are examined as a case study to what extent adjacent area is a functional and effective tool to control sprawl.