長久以來，序列式詞彙處理模式以及互動式詞彙處理模式經常爭論孰為合理的語誤生成模型。這份研究企圖利用心理學實證角度探究此議題。原屬於心理學範疇的史楚普技術(1935)或可提供語言學多方面的視角，尤其在我們處理顏色詞彙時詞彙譯碼歷程上與視覺表徵之間的關係。因此我們試圖將此經典心理學技術轉化成宜於語言學研究的語誤誘發實驗。藉由控制變項間的語音近似度，創制了四項實驗，分別是：顏色唸名實驗、顏色誦讀實驗、史楚普唸名實驗、同音詞唸名實驗。結果顯示，即便受試者對語音近似度並未在單項實驗中產生語誤數量與反應時間的差異，但它在不同實驗任務之間卻誘使受試者產生不一樣的反應結果，包括數量上及時間上的顯著差異。 此外，我們針對語誤，分析其與目標字之間的關係，研判部分音韻效應是否對詞彙處理網絡造成顯著影響。結果顯示，史楚普效應、音韻結構、音法限制以及聲調效應在語誤數量中均出現顯著的生成量；音節首、韻部以及母音則並未出現顯著效應。史楚普技術除了在語誤證據中為文字閱讀提供自動化效應的解釋外，也讓我們看到音韻效應在不同視覺任務指派中產生顯著差異的結果。如此看來，互動式模型提供了較為簡潔的解釋。來自二元視覺刺激(視覺色彩與顏色詞)的詞彙競爭，該框架可以合理提供理論基礎，並解釋不同視覺任務之間音韻關係依存度的不同。 另一方面，我們亦援引同樣技術設計出以音韻單位為導向的唸名實驗，討論語言輸出前規劃單位之議題。我們發現，僅含聲調的音節以及無聲調的音節可在詞彙網絡中做為語言規劃之心理處理單位，促進詞彙處理效能。其他單位如音節首、介音、母音、韻尾、聲調則無法出現顯著效應。同時亦於實驗中發現，中文聲調於規劃階段時，應是屬於詞彙結構上的聲調，而非純粹的聲韻調。 / Serial-ordering model and interactive processing model have long been discussed as whether people process languages in a sequential level of processing or the consequence of levels interacting altogether by looking at speech errors. Stroop technique (1935) in psychology could give linguistics some insights on the relation between lexical encoding and visual representation when people process colors. We tried to adapt this classical psychological experiment for an experiment of speech error elicitation. By means of controlling the phonological similarity, we created four experiments: color naming, color reading, Stroop naming, and homophonous naming tasks. The result first showed that even though phonological similarity did not induce significant difference in error amount and response time within single task, it still caused significant difference in these results among these tasks. Second, after analyzing the linguistic relation between targets and speech errors, we found that Stroop effect, syllable structure, phonotactic regularity, and tone induced apparent effects in error generation, while initial, rhyme, and vowel did not. Stroop effect not only provided the evidence from speech errors where character representation was an autonomous mechanism in lexical process, but also provided a fact that phonological effect would impacted differently on amount of error according to the type of visual task. It seems that interactive account could help explain the result easily, as the competition from dual visual inputs could be given a theoretical basis to account for the phonological dependency according to certain visual task which subjects were assigned to. Finally, we also discussed the issue of advanced planning unit in lexical process. In the shared unit task with Stroop technique, we found that only the units of tonal syllable and bare syllable could serve as possible planning units in lexical network, and tone in Chinese should be attributed to a type of lexical tone in planning, rather than a pure phonological tone. To sum up, the purpose of the study attempts to provide empirical evidence to examine the above issues.

No description available.

Erwartungen spielen eine zentrale Rolle in der menschlichen Handlungssteuerung. Trotz ihrer Rolle in verschiedenen psychologischen Theorien, werden Erwartungen unterschiedlich operationalisiert (was zu teilweise widersprüchlichen Ergebnissen führt) und dabei oft nur indirekt über Hinweisreize(Cues) gemessen bzw. induziert. Diese Dissertation beschäftigt sich mit der Frage, wie sich selbst-generierte und cue-induzierte Erwartungen qualitativ unterscheiden, wie die beiden Erwartungsformen interagieren und welche Art der Operationalisierung zur Messung von Erwartungen zielführender ist. In den beschriebenen Experimenten hatten Proband_innen die Aufgabe, eine Erwartung zu verbalisieren und so schnell und akkurat wie möglich auf einen Stimulus zu reagieren, der diese Erwartung entweder erfüllt(match) oder davon abweicht(mismatch). Die Erwartung konnte dabei durch Vorlesen eines Cues oder die Benennung einer selbst-generierten Erwartung verbalisiert werden. Dabei wurden das Abstraktionslevel der Erwartung, die Art der Reaktion und der Vergleich der beiden Erwartungsformen (innerhalb vs. zwischen verschiedenen Trials) variiert. Bei einem Experiment, das einen genaueren Vergleich von cue-induzierten zu selbst-generierten Erwartungen erlaubt, konnte der größere Effekt von selbst-generierten Erwartungen bestätigt werden. Es wird gezeigt und diskutiert, dass und wie sich selbst-generierte Erwartungseffekte qualitativ von cue-induzierten Effekten unterscheiden. Am konkreten Beispiel von Konflikterwartungen können verbalisierte selbst-generierte Erwartungen eine zuvor widersprüchliche Forschungslage zum Einfluss von Erwartungen auf sequentielle Konflikteffekte konsolidieren. Die Effekte von selbst-generierten und cue-induzierten Erwartungen sind nicht additiv und der Effekt eines Cues wird nicht durch eine abweichende selbst-generierte Erwartung zunichte gemacht. In Anbetracht dieser Ergebnisse diskutiere ich kritisch die Operationalisierung von Erwartungen als Cues. / Expectations help to guide human behavior. For example, responses to expected events/stimuli are faster and less error prone than to unexpected events. In spite of their role in different psychological theories and corresponding experiments the operationalization of expectations is heterogeneous (which can lead to contradictory results) and very often conducted indirectly via cues. The research summarized in this dissertation dealt with the question how cue-induced and self-generated expectations differ qualitatively, how both types of expectations interact and which operationalization of measuring expectations is more adequate. In the summarized experiments participants had the task to verbalize an expectation and then respond accurately as fast as possible to a presented stimulus which could match or mismatch the expectation. The verbalization could either consist of reading aloud a cue or verbalize a self-generated expectation. In the different studies the features/abstraction of the expectations (and stimuli), the type of response, and the way how the effects of the two types of expectation were measured (within or between trials) were varied. In a setting that allows a stricter comparison of cue-induced and self-generated expectations than in previous studies the larger effect of self-generated expectations could be replicated. I confirm and discuss that and how verbalized self-generated expectation effects differ qualitatively from cue-induced effects. On the specific example of conflict expectations, the use of verbalized self-generated expectations can consolidate previous contradictory findings, e.g. about the influence of expectations on the sequential congruency effect. The effects of self-generated and cue-induced expectations are not additive and the effect of a cue is not cancelled if a diverging self-generated expectation is verbalized. In view of these results I critically discuss the operationalization of expectations as cues.

People have always been fascinated by the extent to which belief or will may influence<p>behavior. Proverbs, like “we tend to get what we expect,” and concepts, such as optimistic<p>thinking or self-fulfilling prophecy, reflect this intuition of an important link between one’s<p>dispositions and subsequent behavior. In other words, one’s predictions directly or<p>indirectly cause them to become true. In a similar manner, every culture, country or<p>religion has their own words for ‘expectation,’ ‘belief,’ ‘disappointment,’ ‘surprise,’ and<p>generally all have the same meaning: under uncertainty, what one expects or believes is the<p>most likely to happen. This relation between what caused a reaction in the past will<p>probably cause it again in the future might not be realistic. If the expected outcome is not<p>confirmed, it may result in a personal ‘disappointment’, and if the outcome fits no<p>expectations, it will be a ‘surprise’. Our brain is hardwired with this heuristic capacity of<p>learning the cause-effect relationship and to project its probability as the basis for much of<p>our behavior, as well as cognitions. This experience-based expectation is a form of<p>learning that helps the brain to bypass an exhaustive search in finding a satisfactory<p>solution. Expectations may thus be considered an innate theory of causality; that is, a set of<p>factors (causes) generating a given phenomenon (effects) influence the way we treat<p>incoming information but also the way we retrieve the stored information. These<p>expectancy templates may well represent one of the basic rules of how the brain processes<p>information, affecting the way we perceive the world, direct our attention and deal with<p>conflicting information. In fact, expectations have been shown to influence our judgments<p>and social interactions, along with our volition to individually decide and commit to a<p>particular course of action. However, people’s expectations may elicit the anticipation of<p>their own automatic reactions to various situations and behaviors cues, and can explain that<p>expecting to feel an increase in alertness after coffee consumption leads to experiencing<p>the consequent physiologic and behavioral states. We call this behavior-response<p>expectancy. This non-volitional form of expectation has been shown to influence<p>cognitions such as memory, pain, visual awareness, implicit learning and attention, through<p>the mediation of phenomena like placebo effects and hypnotic behaviors. Importantly,when talking about expectations, placebo and hypnosis, it is important to note that we are<p>also talking about suggestion and its modulating capability. In other words, suggestion has<p>the power to create response expectancies that activate automatic responses, which will, in<p>turn, influence cognition and behavior so as to shape them congruently with the expected<p>outcome. Accordingly, hypnotic inductions are a systematic manipulation of expectancy,<p>similar to placebo, and therefore they both work in a similar way. Considering such<p>assumptions, the major question we address in this PhD thesis is to know if these<p>expectancy-based mechanisms are capable of modulating more high-level information<p>processing such as cognitive conflict resolution, as is present in the well-known Stroop<p>task. In fact, in a recent series of studies, reduction or elimination of Stroop congruency<p>effects was obtained through suggestion and hypnotic induction. In this PhD thesis, it is<p>asked whether a suggestion reinforced by placebos, operating through response-expectancy<p>mechanisms, is able to induce a top-down cognitive modulation to overcome cognitive<p>conflict in the Stroop task, similar to those results found using suggestion and hypnosis<p>manipulation. / Doctorat en Sciences Psychologiques et de l'éducation / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

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本研究以Stroop中文叫色作業，測驗兒童和成人在Stroop作業之練習和刺激向度分離等情形下，其干擾效果的變化情形。共執行兩個實驗，實驗一中的受試者先接受中性刺激和不和諧刺激的測驗，然後對兩類作業練習8日，其後再測驗一次，探討受試者在練習前、後之干擾效果的變化情形。另一組受試接受實驗二中，中性刺激、整合性不和諧刺激和分離性不和諧刺激等作業的測驗，藉以比較整合性干擾和分離性干擾的差異。兩組受試者皆接受文字閱讀的速度測驗。 結果發現，小學二年級兒童的Stroop干擾效果最大，六年級兒童次之，成人最小，這與之前文獻上所載的研究一致，同時也證實，練習確能降低干擾效果，但仍不能使其完全消失，且練習後，三組受試間的干擾效果已無顯著差異。在實驗二的結果顯著，刺激向度分離的干擾效果仍然存在，但比整合性干擾效果小，且受試者間的分離性干擾也沒有顯著差異。而所有受試的閱讀速度均快於叫色速度。 / The study was used the Stroop Chinese task to examine the course of the Stroop interference among second, sixth grade children and adults. Two experiments were conducted. In experiment I, participants were tested with neutral and incongruent tasks and practiced with the same tasks for the following 8 days. They were tested neutral and incongruent tasks again. Then examined the course of the Stroop interference among children of second, sixth grade children and adults, they were test with neutral and incongruent tasks again. Then examine the course of the Stroop interference in between children and adult during before and after practice. The other group of participants took part in experiment II. They were presented with three tasks consist of neutral, integrated and separated incongruent tasks. Then examine the difference of the interference among children of second, sixth grade and adult during integrated and separated incongruent tasks. Two groups of participants were presented word reading speed of task. The finding of the study was Stroop interference increased from the adults through the sixth grade children and finally to the second grade children is in line with previous finding. We have confirmed that although interference decreases with practice, it is very resistant to eradication. After practice, the interference between children and adults is not significant difference. In the experiment II, it was that separated Stroop stimulus showed interference, and the amount was relatively small. The interference of separated Stroop task among children of second, sixth grade and adults were not significant difference. All participants took longer to name color than to read words.