Comment réglementer des substances chimiques malgré des données anciennes, incomplètes, mais surtout inégalement partagées? Depuis l’adoption du Toxic Substances Control Act aux États-Unis en 1976, les asymétries d’information et la multiplication des utilisations des substances chimiques industrielles semblaient avoir rendu leur contrôle impossible. À ce problème longtemps insoluble, le règlement européen REACH, adopté en 2006, propose une réponse originale : la procédure d’autorisation. La thèse rend compte de la manière dont l’autorisation bouleverse la manière d’« interdire » malgré les asymétries d’information. Cette procédure donne désormais aux autorités publiques la possibilité d’interdire des « substances » sur la base de leur classification, tandis que certains « usages » de ces molécules peuvent ensuite être autorisés sur la base de demandes individuelles formulées par des entreprises. Pour continuer à les employer, ces entreprises mettent alors en circulation des données toxicologiques, d’exposition et surtout des évaluations socio-économiques jamais produites jusque-là. Si l’autorisation hérite d’une partie des dispositifs réglementaires précédents, où les activités réglementaires passent par la production de listes de substances chimiques, elle reconfigure surtout les rapports entre les autorités publiques et les entreprises, modifie les objets sur lesquels elles ont prise et transforme les manières d’élaborer les savoirs réglementaires qui appuient la prise de décision. / How can toxic chemicals be regulated with limited and incomplete data on their properties ? Since the Toxic Substances Control Act was adopted in the United States in 1976, information asymmetries and the multiplication of specific applications for chemicals had apparently made their control almost impossible. With the authorisation procedure, the european regulation on the registration, evaluation and authorisation of chemicals (REACH), adopted in 2006, introduces a novel way of controlling the most toxic chemicals. The dissertation shows how such a procedure sets new standards in regulatory control in spite of information asymmetries between regulators and firms. The authorisation procedure renders public authorities able to ban « substances » based on their hazards while some « uses » of these chemicals can be maintained on the market on the basis of invidual applications submitted by firms. In order have such applications accepted, firms provide public authorities with new toxicological and exposure data for very specific uses, and socio-economic analyses that had never been produced before. Although REACH is based on existing regulatory tools, the autorisation procedure profoundly modifies the relationship between regulators and firms, modifies the objects of regulation and transforms the ways in which regulatory knowledge for decision making is produced.

Sous un prisme réflexif, cette recherche vise l’appréhension d’un cadre conflictuel (une controverse ou un conflit), à partir de différentes angles de la construction scientifique d’un problème. Elle articule ainsi trois regards méthodologiques, l’ethnographie, la sociologie de la traduction et de l’analyse de discours, pour examiner les aspects techniques, politiques et communicationnels d'une discussion qui dura une dizaine d'années et qui engagea de centaines de scientifiques, experts, politiciens et profanes dans la production de connaissances. Le cas d’étude est le projet hydroélectrique HidroAysén. Il visait la construction de cinq méga-barrages dans la Patagonie chilienne et proposait de fournir un cinquième de toute la production nationale. Les jeux d'acteurs, leurs argumentations et la circulation discursive de leurs productions culturelles sont des problématiques qui s’intègrent à l’attention à l’autre dans un contexte conflictuel, imprégnant la recherche dans tous les niveaux étudiés : situations de communication dans le cadre des entretiens, logiques d’acteurs et analyse de textes médiatiques. / Through a reflexive perspective, this research looks to apprehend a conflictual frame (it may be a sociotechnical controversy or a communicational conflict), regarding different angles of a scientific construction’s problem. We articulate methodological elements from ethnography, translation sociology and discourse analysis to examine the technical, political and communicational aspects of a discussion that lasted for ten years and engaged hundredths of scientists, experts, politicians and lay people in the production of knowledge.Our case study is the hydro electrical project HidroAysén in Chilean Patagonia that proposed to install five mega-dams in this territory in order to produce one fifth of the national production of energy. We integrate the attention to the other in a conflictual frame to stakeholders, its argumentations and the discursive circulation of its cultural productions. Those problématiques impregnate the research in every studied level: communication situations in the interviews, stakeholder’s interactions and media text’s analyses.

Following established traditions in anthropology and sociology, where cross-border research helps to identify important themes which benefit from comparative study, this dissertation introduces cross-sector policy research as a new methodology for generating useful insights about public policy. The cross-sector method is applied to the study of the UK energy and transport sectors. A range of generic policy developments in the energy sector are identified including: the development of efficiency indicators, scenario analysis, and the establishment of energy efficiency programmes. Such developments have not, as yet, occurred in the transport sector. A structural analogy between energy and transport is developed which is used to generate a range of innovations for transport policy including: gross mass movements and intensities as indicators of the efficiency with which the economy uses transport; the projection of a quantitative scenario of sustainable mobility; and the outline of a transport efficiency programme. The insights from the analogy are generalised to consider the benefits of a wider application of cross-sector policy research to other policy areas.

Thesis (MMil)--Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Since the beginning of naval power, navies have been used by their states as instruments of foreign policy. In South Africa, the political transition since 1994 originated the evolution of the country’s foreign policy. Accordingly, foreign policy has implications for the South African Navy (SAN). Traditionally, navies have three main roles, namely: military, policing and diplomatic, roles. This study only focuses on the diplomatic role of the navy, termed naval diplomacy. In this regard, the SAN is the custodian of South African naval diplomacy. The purpose of this study is to investigate and theoretically appraise the nature and scope of South African naval diplomacy since 1994. The study has two objectives: firstly, it seeks to outline the most salient features of South Africa’s foreign policy, post-1994, as the framework for naval diplomacy; and secondly, it seeks to analyse and describe how the SAN has utilised naval diplomacy, namely: maritime coercion, naval cooperation, international maritime assistance, and international conflict resolution and management, in pursuit of South Africa’s foreign policy objectives. The research methodology is a qualitative descriptive analysis, using a literature study, factual data sources, and interviews, as techniques. Both primary and secondary sources are consulted. This study makes an original contribution to the gap in the literature on South African naval diplomacy. In this regard, with the procurement of the recent ships and submarines, South African naval diplomatic capabilities have improved significantly. It is for this reason that the SAN is currently instrumental in maritime coercion in the region, particularly deterrence against piracy and other maritime insecurity issues. The SAN is also immensely involved in naval cooperation. In terms of international maritime assistance, the SAN does not only assist other countries in search and rescue missions, but also empower them. It also plays a vital and evolving role in international conflict resolution and management. The, however, SAN faces several hindrances including ageing equipment and ships (such as strike craft and hydrographic survey vessel); lack of patrol vessels and sea lift capability; loss of skilled personnel; and other challenges. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Sedert die ontstaan van vlootmagte het state vlote as buitelandse beleidsinstrumente aangewend. Die politieke oorgang in Suid-Afrika in 1994 het tot ʼn evolusie in die land se buitelandse beleid aanleiding gegee, wat ook gevolge vir die Suid-Afrikaanse Vloot (SAV) ingehou het. Tradisioneel het vlote drie hooffunksies, naamlik ʼn militêre, ʼn polisiëring en ʼn diplomatieke funksie. Hierdie studie fokus slegs op die diplomatieke funksie van die vloot, waarna verwys word as vlootdiplomasie, en die SAV se rol as die ‘bewaarder’ van Suid-Afrikaanse vlootdiplomasie. Die doel van hierdie studie is om ondersoek in te stel na die aard en omvang van Suid-Afrikaanse vlootdiplomasie sedert 1994 en dit aan die hand van relevante teoretiese beginsels te beoordeel. Hieruit voortspruitend is twee doelwitte: eerstens om die wesenskenmerke van Suid-Afrika se buitelandse beleid na 1994 as raamwerk vir vlootdiplomasie te gebruik; en tweedens om die wyse waarop vlootdiplomasie ter ondersteuning van Suid-Afrikaanse buitelandse beleidsdoelwitte aangewend is, te beskryf en te ontleed met spesifieke verwysing na maritieme dwang, samewerking tussen vlootmagte, internasionale maritieme hulpverlening, en internasionale konflikresolusie. Die navorsingsmetodologie is 'n kwalitatiewe beskrywende ontleding, gegrond op 'n literatuurstudie, feitlike bronne, en onderhoude. Beide primêre en sekondêre bronne is in die proses geraadpleeg. Hierdie studie is 'n oorspronklike bydrae om die leemte in die literatuur oor die Suid-Afrikaanse vlootdiplomasie aan te spreek. Na die onlangse aanskaffing van nuwe skepe en duikbote, het die SAV se diplomatieke vermoëns aansienlik verbeter. Die gevolg is dat die SAV tans ʼn wesenlike bydrae met betrekking tot maritieme dwang in die streek speel, veral wat teen-seerowery en ander maritieme veiligheidsbedreigings betref. Die SAV is ook baie betrokke in maritieme samewerking. Wat internasionale maritieme hulp betref, het die SAV ander lande met soek en reddingsoperasies bygestaan en ook bemagtig. Die SAV lewer ook ‘n groeiende bydrae tot internasionale konflikresolusie en bestuur. Maar die SAV staar ook verskeie uitdagings in die gesig wat die volgende insluit: verouderde toerusting en skepe (soos aanvalsvaartuie en die hidrografiese opmetingskip); 'n gebrek aan patrollievaartuie en 'n see-verplasingsvermoë; verlies van opgeleide personeel, en verskeie ander uitdagings.

This dissertation seeks to conceptualise and operationalise the concept of soft balancing in international relations by articulating a “theory of tripartite strategic balancing” which is applicable to both international and regional unipolar systems. It has a twofold purpose: one theoretical and the other empirical. First, it seeks to develop a theory of tripartite strategic balancing which encompasses three forms of strategic balancing: internal, external, and soft balancing. The second part seeks to test the theory’s utility in explaining international political outcomes in the post-Cold War international system. In particular, it seeks to ascertain whether and how “second-tier great powers” have strategically balanced against the United States on a global level since the end of the Cold War. The analyses will focus largely on the foreign policies of Russia and France – the chief soft balancers. However, this dissertation also seeks to extend the concept of soft balancing into the regional level of analysis by examining whether and how minor-regional powers soft balance against regional unipolar leaders. For instance, it will examine whether and how the Russian Federation has been soft balanced against by states in the “European Near Abroad.” The analyses will focus primarily on the foreign policies of Poland – the chief soft balancer in the region. The dissertation will employ three in-depth case studies – the Kosovo Crisis (1999), the Iraqi wars (1991-2003), and the Georgia Crisis (2008) – to verify whether or not tripartite strategic balancing is actually occurring as the theory predicts. It will heavily rely on sources and interviews conducted during my time working at the United Nations Security Council and the Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs. These findings seek to contribute a more nuanced strand of thinking to the realist paradigm in international relations, and they offer practical implications for both US and Russian foreign policymaking.

Depuis les années 2000 il y a eu des amplifications et des intensifications de la communauté de chercheurs/euses et des outils scientifiques engagés dans l’Éducation Physique (EP). Ce processus s’est produit/se produit dans diverses tensions qui ont commencé à être problématisées dans des études et des débats. Incitée par ce processus et ces problématisations, je me suis approchée des Études Sociales de la Science et de la Technologie, qui ont permis la réalisation de cette recherche, guidée par la question suivante: de quelle façon fait-on la science dans l’EP Brésilienne? Pour la répondre, j’ai fait une étude ethnographique auprès de deux groupes de recherche de l’EP, ayant une durée d’environ un an et quatre mois dans chacun, où j’ai suivi des humains et des non-humains, des associations et des controverses. En accompagnant/vivant le quotidien de ces groupes je suis arrivée à la conclusion qu’il y a de multiples sciences en EP. Il a été possible d’identifier que, dans la pratique, la science de l’EP est celle développée: par des scientifiques qui s’intéressent au domaine des sciences exactes; travaillant à plein temps comme chercheurs/euses dans le laboratoire; avec l’utilisation des outils technologiques; avec l’établissement de rapports avec des entreprises privées, avec des réponses à des questions sur des comparaisons de forces, de moments de force et d’exercices; avec des méthodologies scientifiques qui offrent des réponses à la question ‘comment va-t-on mesurer (?)’; avec l’utilisation de logiciels qui traduisent en nombres les résultats obtenus dans différents tests et équipements; avec l’analyse statistique; et avec de nombreux processus de ‘purifications’. Au-delà de celle-ci, la science de l’EP est aussi celle qui est développée: par des scientifiques qui sont professeurs d’EP dans l’enseignement scolaire; basée sur des questions concernant l’éducation; visant ‘comprendre’; avec des expériences acquises dans les écoles; avec des méthodologies qualitatives de recherche; avec des outils méthodologiques qui permettent de ‘donner la voix’ aux professeurs et aux élèves enquêtés; avec des décisions sur les ‘catégories d’analyses’; avec des résultats dans le format d’un texte descriptif et herméneutique, avec des repères qui ‘est un texte pour l’univers académique’; avec des descriptions ‘sur qui’ et ‘où’ les faits scientifiques ont été construits; et en se plaçant en tension avec une science historiquement hégémonique dans l’EP. Face à ces constatations j’ai commencé à comprendre/proposer qu’on fasse de la science dans l’EP Brésilienne à partir de différentes ontologies, celles qui, d’après les espaces/temps où elles sont promulguées, existent de manière indépendante ou coexistent pour que, ensemble, elles deviennent une seule science dans l’EP. Appuyée sur la notion de distribution, j’ai identifié que les faits scientifiques, les routines des chercheurs/euses, les textes produits et les choix avec qui dialoguer établissent des indépendances académiques entre les sciences vécues par les groupes enquêtés. Par contre, en analysant les relations que ces groupes ont établies auprès d’un programme de Post- Graduation en EP, et les processus d’évaluation et le soutien régis par Capes et CNPQ, à travers la notion de coordination, j’ai constaté que, pour en devenir ‘une’, les multiples sciences de l’EP coexistent de manière hiérarchique et face à la calibration de leurs différences. Et à partir de la notion d’inclusion j’ai réfléchi sur les engagements des sciences étudiées en s’associant à différentes pratiques d’intervention de l’EP. Finalement, en comprenant que les sciences de l’EP sont multiples, le principal acheminement/provocation de cette thèse c’est qu’en réfléchissant/en rapportant/en questionnant à propos de la science de l’EP (ici, il faut remarquer le singulier) il devient indispensable de réfléchir/rapporter /questionner à propos des types de rapports qui ont été et sont aujourd’hui établis entre les sciences de l’EP (ici, il faut remarquer multiples), et quelles en sont leurs conséquences. / Desde os anos 2000 ocorreram ampliações e intensificações da comunidade de pesquisadores/as e dos aparatos científicos comprometidos com a Educação Física (EF). Esse processo aconteceu/acontece em meio a diversos tensionamentos que passaram a ser problematizados em estudos e debates. Instigada por esse processo e problematizações me aproximei dos Estudos Sociais da Ciência e Tecnologia, os quais provocaram a realização desta pesquisa, guiada pela seguinte questão: de que modo se faz ciência na EF brasileira? Para respondê-la realizei um estudo etnográfico em dois grupos de pesquisa da EF, com a duração aproximada de um ano e quatro meses em cada um deles, em que segui humanos e não-humanos, associações e controvérsias. Ao acompanhar/viver o dia a dia desses grupos cheguei à conclusão de que há múltiplas ciências da EF. Foi possível identificar que, na prática, a ciência da EF é aquela desenvolvida: por cientistas que possuem interesse pelas áreas exatas; com a dedicação exclusiva dos/das pesquisadores/as ao laboratório; com a utilização de aparatos tecnológicos; com o estabelecimento de relações com empresas privadas; com respostas às questões sobre comparações de forças, torques e exercícios; com metodologias científicas que ofereçam respostas à pergunta ‘como vamos medir(?)’; com a utilização de softwares que traduzem para o formato de números os resultados obtidos em diferentes testes e equipamentos; com análise estatística; e com inúmeros processos de ‘purificações’. Além dessa, a ciência da EF também é aquela desenvolvida: por cientistas que são professores de EF escolar; com base em questões sobre educação; com objetivos de ‘compreender’; com experiências adquiridas nas escolas; com metodologias qualitativas de pesquisa; com instrumentos metodológicos que permitem ‘dar voz’ ao professorado e aos estudantes investigados; com decisões sobre as ‘categorias de análises’; com resultados no formato de um texto descritivo e hermenêutico, com demarcações que ‘é um texto para o universo acadêmico’; com descrições ‘sobre quem’ e ‘onde’ os fatos científicos foram construídos; e posicionando-se em tensão com uma ciência historicamente hegemônica na EF. Mediante essas constatações passei a compreender/propor que se faz ciência na EF brasileira a partir de diferentes ontologias, as quais, conforme os espaços/tempos em que são promulgadas, existem de maneira independente ou coexistem para que, juntas, se tornem uma única ciência da EF. Apoiada na noção de distribuição identifiquei que os fatos científicos, as rotinas dos/as pesquisadores/as, os textos produzidos e as escolhas com quem dialogar estabelecem independências acadêmicas entre as ciências vivenciadas pelos grupos investigados. Já, ao analisar as relações que esses grupos estabelecem com um programa de pós-graduação em EF, e os processos de avaliação e fomento regidos pela Capes e CNPQ, por meio da noção de coordenação, constatei que, para se tornam ‘uma’, as múltiplas ciências da EF coexistem de maneira hierárquica e mediante a calibração de suas diferenças. E a partir da noção de inclusão refleti sobre os comprometimentos das ciências investigadas ao se associarem a diferentes práticas de intervenção da EF. Enfim, ao compreender que as ciências da EF são múltiplas, o principal encaminhamento/provocação desta tese é que ao se pensar/referir/indagar sobre a ciência da EF (nota-se, no singular) passa a ser indispensável pensar/referir/indagar sobre os tipos de relações que foram e estão sendo estabelecidas entre as ciências da EF (nota-se múltiplas), e quais são as suas consequências. / Since the beginning of the years 2000, there has been an enlarging and intensifying movement within the community of researchers and the scientific devices committed with Physical Education (PE). This process occurred and occurs among diverse tensions that have become the object of studies and debates. Incited by such process and discussions, I approached the Social Studies on Science and Technology which led me to carry out this research guided by the following question: how is science performed in Brazilian Physical Education? In order to get an answer to this question, I made an ethnographic study in two research groups of PE with an approximate duration of one year and four months on each, where I followed up humans and non-humans, associations and controversies. Upon following-up and experiencing the daily activities of these groups, I found out that there are multiple sciences on PE. It was possible to identify that, in practice, the PE science is developed by scientists interested on exact areas with exclusive dedication to laboratory research by utilizing technological devices and establishing relations with private companies; by trying to find answers to questions regarding the comparison of strengths, torques and exercises; by applying scientific methodologies that offer answers to the question ´how to measure…?`; by utilizing software that convert into digits the results obtained in different tests and equipment with statistical analysis and numberless ´purification` processes. Besides, the PE Science is also developed by scientists that are teachers of school PE based on issues about education with the objective of ´understanding` through experiences acquired in the schools; with qualitative research methodologies; with methodology instruments that allow ´giving voice` to inquired teachers and students; with decisions about ´analysis categories`; with results in the format of a descriptive and hermeneutical text; with demarcations identifying that ´it is a text for the academic universe`; with descriptions ´about who` and ´where` the scientific facts were constructed; and positioning itself n tension with a science that has been historically hegemonic in PE. These findings have led me to understand and to propose that one makes science in the Brazilian PE from different ontologies which, according to the spaces and times where and when they are enacted, exist in an independent way or which co-exist so that, together, they become a sole PE science. Supported by the distribution notion, I identified that the scientific facts, the routines of the researchers, the texts produced and the choices of the dialogue counterparts establish academic independences among the sciences experienced by the investigated groups. Meanwhile, the analyses of the relations that these groups establish with a post-graduation program in PE and of the processes to assess and to foster ruled by Capes and CNPQ, by means of the coordination notion, I have found out that in order to become ´one` the multiple PE sciences co-exist in hierarchic mode and through the calibration of their differences. From the notion of inclusion, I have thought over the commitments of the investigated sciences when they connect with different intervention practices of PE. In short, upon understanding that PE sciences are multiple, the main referral and provocation of this dissertation is that when one thinks, refers and enquires about PE science (that is, in the singular) it becomes essential to think, to refer and to enquire about the types of relations that have been or are being established among PE sciences (that is, multiple) and which are their consequences. / Desde los años 2000 han ocurrido ampliaciones e intensificaciones de la comunidad de investigadores/as y de los aparatos científicos comprometidos con la Educación Física (EF). Ese proceso sucedió/sucede en medio de diversas que comenzaron a ser problematizadas en estudios y debates. Instigada por ese proceso y por esas problematizaciones me aproximé a los Estudios Sociales de la Ciencia y Tecnología, los cuales motivaron la construcción de esta investigación, guiada por la siguiente interrogante: ¿de qué modo se hace ciencia en la EF brasilera? Con el fin de dar respuesta a dicha pregunta realicé un estudio etnográfico en dos grupos de investigación de la EF, con la duración aproximada de un año y cuatro meses en cada uno de ellos, en los cuales seguí a humanos y no-humanos, asociaciones y controversias. Al acompañar/vivir el día a día de esos grupos llegué a la conclusión de que existen múltiples ciencias de la EF. Fue posible identificar que, en la práctica, la ciencia de la EF es aquella desarrollada: por científicos que tienen interés en las ciencias duras; con dedicación exclusiva de los/as investigadores/as al laboratorio; con el uso de instrumentos tecnológicos; con el establecimiento de relaciones con empresas privadas; con respuestas a las cuestiones sobre comparaciones de fuerzas, torques y ejercicios; con metodologías científicas que ofrezcan respuestas a la pregunta ‘cómo vamos a medir(?)’; con la utilización de softwares que traducen al formato de números los resultados obtenidos en diferentes tests y equipamientos; con análisis estadístico; y con innumerables procesos de ‘purificación’. Además de esa, la ciencia de la EF es también aquella desarrollada: por científicos que son profesores de EF escolar; con base en cuestiones sobre educación; con objetivos de ‘comprender’; con experiencias adquiridas en las escuelas; con metodologías cualitativas de investigación; con instrumentos metodológicos que permiten ‘dar voz’ al profesorado y a los estudiantes investigados; con decisiones sobre las ‘categorías de análisis’; con resultados en el formato de un texto descriptivo y hermenéutico, con demarcaciones de que ‘es un texto para el universo académico’; con descripciones ‘sobre quien’ y ‘dónde’ los hechos científicos fueron construidos; y posicionándose en contraposición a una ciencia históricamente hegemónica en la EF. Mediante esas constataciones pasé a comprender/proponer que se hace/produce ciencia en la EF brasilera a partir de diferentes ontologías, las cuales, conforme los espacios/tiempos en que son promulgadas, existen de forma independiente o coexisten para que, juntas, se conviertan en una única ciencia de la EF. Apoyada en la noción de distribución identifiqué que los hechos científicos, las rutinas de los/as investigadores/as, los textos producidos y las elecciones de con quien dialogar establecen independencias académicas entre las ciencias vivenciadas por los grupos investigados. A su vez, al analizar las relaciones que esos grupos establecen con un programa de posgrado en EF, y los procesos de evaluación y fomento regidos por la Capes y el CNPQ, a través de la noción de coordinación, constaté que, para que se transformaran en ‘una’, las múltiples ciencias de la EF coexisten de manera jerárquica y a través de la asimilación de sus diferencias. Y a partir de la noción de inclusión reflexioné sobre los compromisos de las ciencias investigadas al asociarse con diferentes prácticas de intervención de la EF. Finalmente, al comprender que las ciencias de la EF son múltiples, el principal direccionamiento/ provocación de esta tesis es que al pensar/referir/indagar sobre la ciencia de la EF (nótese, en el singular) pasa a ser indispensable pensar/referir/indagar sobre los tipos de relaciones que fueron establecidas y se establecen entre las ciencias de la EF (nótese múltiples), y cuáles son sus consecuencias.

Biologiste reconnu, notamment, pour sa contribution à la fondation de la génétique des populations, J.B.S. Haldane (1892-1964) est également membre du Parti Communiste de Grande-Bretagne entre 1942 et 1950 et, à partir de 1937, il défend avec force l'opinion que le marxisme est utile au travail scientifique. Notre étude porte sur les idées marxistes de Haldane et sur la manière dont elles sont historiquement produites. Elle examine d'abord son parcours intellectuel et propose de comprendre son adoption du marxisme dans le cadre d'une dynamique de recherche d'unité entre des conceptions des sciences, de la philosophie et de la politique. L'étude porte ensuite sur la manière dont fonctionne ce qui est caractérisé comme une vision marxiste du monde, c'est-à-dire un mode de production et de circulation de concepts. En particulier, l'assertion que fait Haldane d'un usage du marxisme dans son travail scientifique est confrontée à certains de ses travaux en génétique des populations, ainsi qu'aux idées qu'il émet concernant l'eugénisme. Cette confrontation permet de confirmer et de généraliser, contre Sarkar (1992) et Shapiro (1993), le résultat proposé par Hammond (2004) d'une effectivité du marxisme de Haldane dans ses sciences, et de préciser la manière dont elle se réalise. Finalement, nous proposons une compréhension du marxisme de Haldane comme un cas particulier de processus historiques plus généraux. Nous examinons l'histoire des idées marxistes sur les sciences et le phénomène d'engagement politique de scientifiques britanniques à cette époque, et interrogeons par là les racines politiques et sociales du marxisme de Haldane. / A prominent biologist, remembered as a prominent contributor to the theoretical foundations of population genetics, JBS Haldane (1892-1964) was also a member of the Communist Party of Great Britain from 1942 to 1950. From 1937 on, he vigorously advocated the idea that Marxism was useful to scientific work.Our study focuses on Haldane's Marxist ideas and discusses the ways in which they were historically produced. We first consider the development of Haldane's intellectual positions and interpret his adoption of Marxism in the context of a dynamic search for unity between conceptions of science, philosophy and politics. Our study then focuses on the working of his Marxist thinking, which we characterize as a worldview, that is to say a mode of production and circulation of ideas. In particular, we examine the claim that Haldane made use of Marxism in his science using as evidence some of his work in population genetics and eugenics. This leads us to strengthen and generalize the case made by Hammond (2004) against Sarkar (1992) and Shapiro (1993) in favour of the impact of Haldane's Marxism on his science, and to a clarification concerning how this took place. Finally, we propose the interpretation of Haldane's Marxism as a special case of more general historical processes. We investigate the history of Marxist ideas of science and that of British scientists' political commitment at the time, and thus question the social and political roots of Haldane's Marxism.

This thesis provides the first comprehensive study of an eminent but oft-overlooked Victorian polymath, with the overarching aims of assessing his contributions to nineteenth-century intellectual life and of exploring the mutual relations between science and religion in his work. One of the towering figures of the Victorian scientific establishment, William Carpenter (1813-1885), F.R.S, was a famous physiologist and public figure. He is most remembered for his concept of 'unconscious cerebration' which contributed to the emergence of the disciplines of neurology and modern psychology, but Carpenter was also noted amongst his peers for his evolutionary approach to the study of the unicellular marine invertebrates known as the foraminifera. As a lifelong practicing Unitarian, Carpenter's outspoken support for evolutionary theory made him an exemplary advocate of the compatibility between rational thought and Christian belief amidst the Victorian debate about science and religion. As the Registrar of the University of London during its formative years, Carpenter also had a nationwide impact on the fortunes of scientific education and secondary education as a whole. Finally, as a populariser of science and public moralist, "Dr. Carpenter" was also well known to the Victorian public as one of the most outspoken critics of spiritualism, alleged paranormal phenomena, and superstition more generally. Nevertheless, no systematic study of Carpenter's work had until now been carried out, and the commonly held view that he lacked originality as a scientist had not been fully questioned. The current study therefore aims to review Carpenter's achievements and trace his intellectual legacy. As an intellectual biography, it argues that focusing on the now lesser-known members of the British intelligentsia can shine new light on the context of the professionalization of science in Victorian Britain. In its focus on science and religion, this thesis argues that a deeper understanding of Carpenter's Unitarianism must feature at the heart of any endeavour to analyse his work. Previous references to Carpenter either bypassed Unitarianism and its nineteenth-century transformations, or reduced Unitarian thought to certain core tenets that fell short of uncovering Carpenter's philosophical pursuits. Carpenter's Unitarianism is still often equated with the rationalism and mortalism that defined late eighteenth-century Unitarianism, and this failure to recognise how much Carpenter's own faith had departed from earlier strands of Unitarian belief has led to some misinterpretations of his motives. The current thesis therefore offers fresh interpretations of Carpenter's work, based on new archival material and recent historical studies of the shifting priorities shaping the more romantic and emotional spirituality of nineteenth-century Unitarianism. Taking an integrative approach to Carpenter's various projects makes it possible to show how seminal many of his ideas were, and how his Unitarianism, both in its social and spiritual dimensions, influenced his professional, political and intellectual choices. The biographical angle taken in this thesis also makes it possible to uncover a degree of epistemological coherence underpinning Carpenter's thought, and to argue that Carpenter's efforts to transcend conflicting viewpoints partook of his wider social and metaphysical aims.

Depuis les années 2000 il y a eu des amplifications et des intensifications de la communauté de chercheurs/euses et des outils scientifiques engagés dans l’Éducation Physique (EP). Ce processus s’est produit/se produit dans diverses tensions qui ont commencé à être problématisées dans des études et des débats. Incitée par ce processus et ces problématisations, je me suis approchée des Études Sociales de la Science et de la Technologie, qui ont permis la réalisation de cette recherche, guidée par la question suivante: de quelle façon fait-on la science dans l’EP Brésilienne? Pour la répondre, j’ai fait une étude ethnographique auprès de deux groupes de recherche de l’EP, ayant une durée d’environ un an et quatre mois dans chacun, où j’ai suivi des humains et des non-humains, des associations et des controverses. En accompagnant/vivant le quotidien de ces groupes je suis arrivée à la conclusion qu’il y a de multiples sciences en EP. Il a été possible d’identifier que, dans la pratique, la science de l’EP est celle développée: par des scientifiques qui s’intéressent au domaine des sciences exactes; travaillant à plein temps comme chercheurs/euses dans le laboratoire; avec l’utilisation des outils technologiques; avec l’établissement de rapports avec des entreprises privées, avec des réponses à des questions sur des comparaisons de forces, de moments de force et d’exercices; avec des méthodologies scientifiques qui offrent des réponses à la question ‘comment va-t-on mesurer (?)’; avec l’utilisation de logiciels qui traduisent en nombres les résultats obtenus dans différents tests et équipements; avec l’analyse statistique; et avec de nombreux processus de ‘purifications’. Au-delà de celle-ci, la science de l’EP est aussi celle qui est développée: par des scientifiques qui sont professeurs d’EP dans l’enseignement scolaire; basée sur des questions concernant l’éducation; visant ‘comprendre’; avec des expériences acquises dans les écoles; avec des méthodologies qualitatives de recherche; avec des outils méthodologiques qui permettent de ‘donner la voix’ aux professeurs et aux élèves enquêtés; avec des décisions sur les ‘catégories d’analyses’; avec des résultats dans le format d’un texte descriptif et herméneutique, avec des repères qui ‘est un texte pour l’univers académique’; avec des descriptions ‘sur qui’ et ‘où’ les faits scientifiques ont été construits; et en se plaçant en tension avec une science historiquement hégémonique dans l’EP. Face à ces constatations j’ai commencé à comprendre/proposer qu’on fasse de la science dans l’EP Brésilienne à partir de différentes ontologies, celles qui, d’après les espaces/temps où elles sont promulguées, existent de manière indépendante ou coexistent pour que, ensemble, elles deviennent une seule science dans l’EP. Appuyée sur la notion de distribution, j’ai identifié que les faits scientifiques, les routines des chercheurs/euses, les textes produits et les choix avec qui dialoguer établissent des indépendances académiques entre les sciences vécues par les groupes enquêtés. Par contre, en analysant les relations que ces groupes ont établies auprès d’un programme de Post- Graduation en EP, et les processus d’évaluation et le soutien régis par Capes et CNPQ, à travers la notion de coordination, j’ai constaté que, pour en devenir ‘une’, les multiples sciences de l’EP coexistent de manière hiérarchique et face à la calibration de leurs différences. Et à partir de la notion d’inclusion j’ai réfléchi sur les engagements des sciences étudiées en s’associant à différentes pratiques d’intervention de l’EP. Finalement, en comprenant que les sciences de l’EP sont multiples, le principal acheminement/provocation de cette thèse c’est qu’en réfléchissant/en rapportant/en questionnant à propos de la science de l’EP (ici, il faut remarquer le singulier) il devient indispensable de réfléchir/rapporter /questionner à propos des types de rapports qui ont été et sont aujourd’hui établis entre les sciences de l’EP (ici, il faut remarquer multiples), et quelles en sont leurs conséquences. / Desde os anos 2000 ocorreram ampliações e intensificações da comunidade de pesquisadores/as e dos aparatos científicos comprometidos com a Educação Física (EF). Esse processo aconteceu/acontece em meio a diversos tensionamentos que passaram a ser problematizados em estudos e debates. Instigada por esse processo e problematizações me aproximei dos Estudos Sociais da Ciência e Tecnologia, os quais provocaram a realização desta pesquisa, guiada pela seguinte questão: de que modo se faz ciência na EF brasileira? Para respondê-la realizei um estudo etnográfico em dois grupos de pesquisa da EF, com a duração aproximada de um ano e quatro meses em cada um deles, em que segui humanos e não-humanos, associações e controvérsias. Ao acompanhar/viver o dia a dia desses grupos cheguei à conclusão de que há múltiplas ciências da EF. Foi possível identificar que, na prática, a ciência da EF é aquela desenvolvida: por cientistas que possuem interesse pelas áreas exatas; com a dedicação exclusiva dos/das pesquisadores/as ao laboratório; com a utilização de aparatos tecnológicos; com o estabelecimento de relações com empresas privadas; com respostas às questões sobre comparações de forças, torques e exercícios; com metodologias científicas que ofereçam respostas à pergunta ‘como vamos medir(?)’; com a utilização de softwares que traduzem para o formato de números os resultados obtidos em diferentes testes e equipamentos; com análise estatística; e com inúmeros processos de ‘purificações’. Além dessa, a ciência da EF também é aquela desenvolvida: por cientistas que são professores de EF escolar; com base em questões sobre educação; com objetivos de ‘compreender’; com experiências adquiridas nas escolas; com metodologias qualitativas de pesquisa; com instrumentos metodológicos que permitem ‘dar voz’ ao professorado e aos estudantes investigados; com decisões sobre as ‘categorias de análises’; com resultados no formato de um texto descritivo e hermenêutico, com demarcações que ‘é um texto para o universo acadêmico’; com descrições ‘sobre quem’ e ‘onde’ os fatos científicos foram construídos; e posicionando-se em tensão com uma ciência historicamente hegemônica na EF. Mediante essas constatações passei a compreender/propor que se faz ciência na EF brasileira a partir de diferentes ontologias, as quais, conforme os espaços/tempos em que são promulgadas, existem de maneira independente ou coexistem para que, juntas, se tornem uma única ciência da EF. Apoiada na noção de distribuição identifiquei que os fatos científicos, as rotinas dos/as pesquisadores/as, os textos produzidos e as escolhas com quem dialogar estabelecem independências acadêmicas entre as ciências vivenciadas pelos grupos investigados. Já, ao analisar as relações que esses grupos estabelecem com um programa de pós-graduação em EF, e os processos de avaliação e fomento regidos pela Capes e CNPQ, por meio da noção de coordenação, constatei que, para se tornam ‘uma’, as múltiplas ciências da EF coexistem de maneira hierárquica e mediante a calibração de suas diferenças. E a partir da noção de inclusão refleti sobre os comprometimentos das ciências investigadas ao se associarem a diferentes práticas de intervenção da EF. Enfim, ao compreender que as ciências da EF são múltiplas, o principal encaminhamento/provocação desta tese é que ao se pensar/referir/indagar sobre a ciência da EF (nota-se, no singular) passa a ser indispensável pensar/referir/indagar sobre os tipos de relações que foram e estão sendo estabelecidas entre as ciências da EF (nota-se múltiplas), e quais são as suas consequências. / Since the beginning of the years 2000, there has been an enlarging and intensifying movement within the community of researchers and the scientific devices committed with Physical Education (PE). This process occurred and occurs among diverse tensions that have become the object of studies and debates. Incited by such process and discussions, I approached the Social Studies on Science and Technology which led me to carry out this research guided by the following question: how is science performed in Brazilian Physical Education? In order to get an answer to this question, I made an ethnographic study in two research groups of PE with an approximate duration of one year and four months on each, where I followed up humans and non-humans, associations and controversies. Upon following-up and experiencing the daily activities of these groups, I found out that there are multiple sciences on PE. It was possible to identify that, in practice, the PE science is developed by scientists interested on exact areas with exclusive dedication to laboratory research by utilizing technological devices and establishing relations with private companies; by trying to find answers to questions regarding the comparison of strengths, torques and exercises; by applying scientific methodologies that offer answers to the question ´how to measure…?`; by utilizing software that convert into digits the results obtained in different tests and equipment with statistical analysis and numberless ´purification` processes. Besides, the PE Science is also developed by scientists that are teachers of school PE based on issues about education with the objective of ´understanding` through experiences acquired in the schools; with qualitative research methodologies; with methodology instruments that allow ´giving voice` to inquired teachers and students; with decisions about ´analysis categories`; with results in the format of a descriptive and hermeneutical text; with demarcations identifying that ´it is a text for the academic universe`; with descriptions ´about who` and ´where` the scientific facts were constructed; and positioning itself n tension with a science that has been historically hegemonic in PE. These findings have led me to understand and to propose that one makes science in the Brazilian PE from different ontologies which, according to the spaces and times where and when they are enacted, exist in an independent way or which co-exist so that, together, they become a sole PE science. Supported by the distribution notion, I identified that the scientific facts, the routines of the researchers, the texts produced and the choices of the dialogue counterparts establish academic independences among the sciences experienced by the investigated groups. Meanwhile, the analyses of the relations that these groups establish with a post-graduation program in PE and of the processes to assess and to foster ruled by Capes and CNPQ, by means of the coordination notion, I have found out that in order to become ´one` the multiple PE sciences co-exist in hierarchic mode and through the calibration of their differences. From the notion of inclusion, I have thought over the commitments of the investigated sciences when they connect with different intervention practices of PE. In short, upon understanding that PE sciences are multiple, the main referral and provocation of this dissertation is that when one thinks, refers and enquires about PE science (that is, in the singular) it becomes essential to think, to refer and to enquire about the types of relations that have been or are being established among PE sciences (that is, multiple) and which are their consequences. / Desde los años 2000 han ocurrido ampliaciones e intensificaciones de la comunidad de investigadores/as y de los aparatos científicos comprometidos con la Educación Física (EF). Ese proceso sucedió/sucede en medio de diversas que comenzaron a ser problematizadas en estudios y debates. Instigada por ese proceso y por esas problematizaciones me aproximé a los Estudios Sociales de la Ciencia y Tecnología, los cuales motivaron la construcción de esta investigación, guiada por la siguiente interrogante: ¿de qué modo se hace ciencia en la EF brasilera? Con el fin de dar respuesta a dicha pregunta realicé un estudio etnográfico en dos grupos de investigación de la EF, con la duración aproximada de un año y cuatro meses en cada uno de ellos, en los cuales seguí a humanos y no-humanos, asociaciones y controversias. Al acompañar/vivir el día a día de esos grupos llegué a la conclusión de que existen múltiples ciencias de la EF. Fue posible identificar que, en la práctica, la ciencia de la EF es aquella desarrollada: por científicos que tienen interés en las ciencias duras; con dedicación exclusiva de los/as investigadores/as al laboratorio; con el uso de instrumentos tecnológicos; con el establecimiento de relaciones con empresas privadas; con respuestas a las cuestiones sobre comparaciones de fuerzas, torques y ejercicios; con metodologías científicas que ofrezcan respuestas a la pregunta ‘cómo vamos a medir(?)’; con la utilización de softwares que traducen al formato de números los resultados obtenidos en diferentes tests y equipamientos; con análisis estadístico; y con innumerables procesos de ‘purificación’. Además de esa, la ciencia de la EF es también aquella desarrollada: por científicos que son profesores de EF escolar; con base en cuestiones sobre educación; con objetivos de ‘comprender’; con experiencias adquiridas en las escuelas; con metodologías cualitativas de investigación; con instrumentos metodológicos que permiten ‘dar voz’ al profesorado y a los estudiantes investigados; con decisiones sobre las ‘categorías de análisis’; con resultados en el formato de un texto descriptivo y hermenéutico, con demarcaciones de que ‘es un texto para el universo académico’; con descripciones ‘sobre quien’ y ‘dónde’ los hechos científicos fueron construidos; y posicionándose en contraposición a una ciencia históricamente hegemónica en la EF. Mediante esas constataciones pasé a comprender/proponer que se hace/produce ciencia en la EF brasilera a partir de diferentes ontologías, las cuales, conforme los espacios/tiempos en que son promulgadas, existen de forma independiente o coexisten para que, juntas, se conviertan en una única ciencia de la EF. Apoyada en la noción de distribución identifiqué que los hechos científicos, las rutinas de los/as investigadores/as, los textos producidos y las elecciones de con quien dialogar establecen independencias académicas entre las ciencias vivenciadas por los grupos investigados. A su vez, al analizar las relaciones que esos grupos establecen con un programa de posgrado en EF, y los procesos de evaluación y fomento regidos por la Capes y el CNPQ, a través de la noción de coordinación, constaté que, para que se transformaran en ‘una’, las múltiples ciencias de la EF coexisten de manera jerárquica y a través de la asimilación de sus diferencias. Y a partir de la noción de inclusión reflexioné sobre los compromisos de las ciencias investigadas al asociarse con diferentes prácticas de intervención de la EF. Finalmente, al comprender que las ciencias de la EF son múltiples, el principal direccionamiento/ provocación de esta tesis es que al pensar/referir/indagar sobre la ciencia de la EF (nótese, en el singular) pasa a ser indispensable pensar/referir/indagar sobre los tipos de relaciones que fueron establecidas y se establecen entre las ciencias de la EF (nótese múltiples), y cuáles son sus consecuencias.

Depuis les années 2000 il y a eu des amplifications et des intensifications de la communauté de chercheurs/euses et des outils scientifiques engagés dans l’Éducation Physique (EP). Ce processus s’est produit/se produit dans diverses tensions qui ont commencé à être problématisées dans des études et des débats. Incitée par ce processus et ces problématisations, je me suis approchée des Études Sociales de la Science et de la Technologie, qui ont permis la réalisation de cette recherche, guidée par la question suivante: de quelle façon fait-on la science dans l’EP Brésilienne? Pour la répondre, j’ai fait une étude ethnographique auprès de deux groupes de recherche de l’EP, ayant une durée d’environ un an et quatre mois dans chacun, où j’ai suivi des humains et des non-humains, des associations et des controverses. En accompagnant/vivant le quotidien de ces groupes je suis arrivée à la conclusion qu’il y a de multiples sciences en EP. Il a été possible d’identifier que, dans la pratique, la science de l’EP est celle développée: par des scientifiques qui s’intéressent au domaine des sciences exactes; travaillant à plein temps comme chercheurs/euses dans le laboratoire; avec l’utilisation des outils technologiques; avec l’établissement de rapports avec des entreprises privées, avec des réponses à des questions sur des comparaisons de forces, de moments de force et d’exercices; avec des méthodologies scientifiques qui offrent des réponses à la question ‘comment va-t-on mesurer (?)’; avec l’utilisation de logiciels qui traduisent en nombres les résultats obtenus dans différents tests et équipements; avec l’analyse statistique; et avec de nombreux processus de ‘purifications’. Au-delà de celle-ci, la science de l’EP est aussi celle qui est développée: par des scientifiques qui sont professeurs d’EP dans l’enseignement scolaire; basée sur des questions concernant l’éducation; visant ‘comprendre’; avec des expériences acquises dans les écoles; avec des méthodologies qualitatives de recherche; avec des outils méthodologiques qui permettent de ‘donner la voix’ aux professeurs et aux élèves enquêtés; avec des décisions sur les ‘catégories d’analyses’; avec des résultats dans le format d’un texte descriptif et herméneutique, avec des repères qui ‘est un texte pour l’univers académique’; avec des descriptions ‘sur qui’ et ‘où’ les faits scientifiques ont été construits; et en se plaçant en tension avec une science historiquement hégémonique dans l’EP. Face à ces constatations j’ai commencé à comprendre/proposer qu’on fasse de la science dans l’EP Brésilienne à partir de différentes ontologies, celles qui, d’après les espaces/temps où elles sont promulguées, existent de manière indépendante ou coexistent pour que, ensemble, elles deviennent une seule science dans l’EP. Appuyée sur la notion de distribution, j’ai identifié que les faits scientifiques, les routines des chercheurs/euses, les textes produits et les choix avec qui dialoguer établissent des indépendances académiques entre les sciences vécues par les groupes enquêtés. Par contre, en analysant les relations que ces groupes ont établies auprès d’un programme de Post- Graduation en EP, et les processus d’évaluation et le soutien régis par Capes et CNPQ, à travers la notion de coordination, j’ai constaté que, pour en devenir ‘une’, les multiples sciences de l’EP coexistent de manière hiérarchique et face à la calibration de leurs différences. Et à partir de la notion d’inclusion j’ai réfléchi sur les engagements des sciences étudiées en s’associant à différentes pratiques d’intervention de l’EP. Finalement, en comprenant que les sciences de l’EP sont multiples, le principal acheminement/provocation de cette thèse c’est qu’en réfléchissant/en rapportant/en questionnant à propos de la science de l’EP (ici, il faut remarquer le singulier) il devient indispensable de réfléchir/rapporter /questionner à propos des types de rapports qui ont été et sont aujourd’hui établis entre les sciences de l’EP (ici, il faut remarquer multiples), et quelles en sont leurs conséquences. / Desde os anos 2000 ocorreram ampliações e intensificações da comunidade de pesquisadores/as e dos aparatos científicos comprometidos com a Educação Física (EF). Esse processo aconteceu/acontece em meio a diversos tensionamentos que passaram a ser problematizados em estudos e debates. Instigada por esse processo e problematizações me aproximei dos Estudos Sociais da Ciência e Tecnologia, os quais provocaram a realização desta pesquisa, guiada pela seguinte questão: de que modo se faz ciência na EF brasileira? Para respondê-la realizei um estudo etnográfico em dois grupos de pesquisa da EF, com a duração aproximada de um ano e quatro meses em cada um deles, em que segui humanos e não-humanos, associações e controvérsias. Ao acompanhar/viver o dia a dia desses grupos cheguei à conclusão de que há múltiplas ciências da EF. Foi possível identificar que, na prática, a ciência da EF é aquela desenvolvida: por cientistas que possuem interesse pelas áreas exatas; com a dedicação exclusiva dos/das pesquisadores/as ao laboratório; com a utilização de aparatos tecnológicos; com o estabelecimento de relações com empresas privadas; com respostas às questões sobre comparações de forças, torques e exercícios; com metodologias científicas que ofereçam respostas à pergunta ‘como vamos medir(?)’; com a utilização de softwares que traduzem para o formato de números os resultados obtidos em diferentes testes e equipamentos; com análise estatística; e com inúmeros processos de ‘purificações’. Além dessa, a ciência da EF também é aquela desenvolvida: por cientistas que são professores de EF escolar; com base em questões sobre educação; com objetivos de ‘compreender’; com experiências adquiridas nas escolas; com metodologias qualitativas de pesquisa; com instrumentos metodológicos que permitem ‘dar voz’ ao professorado e aos estudantes investigados; com decisões sobre as ‘categorias de análises’; com resultados no formato de um texto descritivo e hermenêutico, com demarcações que ‘é um texto para o universo acadêmico’; com descrições ‘sobre quem’ e ‘onde’ os fatos científicos foram construídos; e posicionando-se em tensão com uma ciência historicamente hegemônica na EF. Mediante essas constatações passei a compreender/propor que se faz ciência na EF brasileira a partir de diferentes ontologias, as quais, conforme os espaços/tempos em que são promulgadas, existem de maneira independente ou coexistem para que, juntas, se tornem uma única ciência da EF. Apoiada na noção de distribuição identifiquei que os fatos científicos, as rotinas dos/as pesquisadores/as, os textos produzidos e as escolhas com quem dialogar estabelecem independências acadêmicas entre as ciências vivenciadas pelos grupos investigados. Já, ao analisar as relações que esses grupos estabelecem com um programa de pós-graduação em EF, e os processos de avaliação e fomento regidos pela Capes e CNPQ, por meio da noção de coordenação, constatei que, para se tornam ‘uma’, as múltiplas ciências da EF coexistem de maneira hierárquica e mediante a calibração de suas diferenças. E a partir da noção de inclusão refleti sobre os comprometimentos das ciências investigadas ao se associarem a diferentes práticas de intervenção da EF. Enfim, ao compreender que as ciências da EF são múltiplas, o principal encaminhamento/provocação desta tese é que ao se pensar/referir/indagar sobre a ciência da EF (nota-se, no singular) passa a ser indispensável pensar/referir/indagar sobre os tipos de relações que foram e estão sendo estabelecidas entre as ciências da EF (nota-se múltiplas), e quais são as suas consequências. / Since the beginning of the years 2000, there has been an enlarging and intensifying movement within the community of researchers and the scientific devices committed with Physical Education (PE). This process occurred and occurs among diverse tensions that have become the object of studies and debates. Incited by such process and discussions, I approached the Social Studies on Science and Technology which led me to carry out this research guided by the following question: how is science performed in Brazilian Physical Education? In order to get an answer to this question, I made an ethnographic study in two research groups of PE with an approximate duration of one year and four months on each, where I followed up humans and non-humans, associations and controversies. Upon following-up and experiencing the daily activities of these groups, I found out that there are multiple sciences on PE. It was possible to identify that, in practice, the PE science is developed by scientists interested on exact areas with exclusive dedication to laboratory research by utilizing technological devices and establishing relations with private companies; by trying to find answers to questions regarding the comparison of strengths, torques and exercises; by applying scientific methodologies that offer answers to the question ´how to measure…?`; by utilizing software that convert into digits the results obtained in different tests and equipment with statistical analysis and numberless ´purification` processes. Besides, the PE Science is also developed by scientists that are teachers of school PE based on issues about education with the objective of ´understanding` through experiences acquired in the schools; with qualitative research methodologies; with methodology instruments that allow ´giving voice` to inquired teachers and students; with decisions about ´analysis categories`; with results in the format of a descriptive and hermeneutical text; with demarcations identifying that ´it is a text for the academic universe`; with descriptions ´about who` and ´where` the scientific facts were constructed; and positioning itself n tension with a science that has been historically hegemonic in PE. These findings have led me to understand and to propose that one makes science in the Brazilian PE from different ontologies which, according to the spaces and times where and when they are enacted, exist in an independent way or which co-exist so that, together, they become a sole PE science. Supported by the distribution notion, I identified that the scientific facts, the routines of the researchers, the texts produced and the choices of the dialogue counterparts establish academic independences among the sciences experienced by the investigated groups. Meanwhile, the analyses of the relations that these groups establish with a post-graduation program in PE and of the processes to assess and to foster ruled by Capes and CNPQ, by means of the coordination notion, I have found out that in order to become ´one` the multiple PE sciences co-exist in hierarchic mode and through the calibration of their differences. From the notion of inclusion, I have thought over the commitments of the investigated sciences when they connect with different intervention practices of PE. In short, upon understanding that PE sciences are multiple, the main referral and provocation of this dissertation is that when one thinks, refers and enquires about PE science (that is, in the singular) it becomes essential to think, to refer and to enquire about the types of relations that have been or are being established among PE sciences (that is, multiple) and which are their consequences. / Desde los años 2000 han ocurrido ampliaciones e intensificaciones de la comunidad de investigadores/as y de los aparatos científicos comprometidos con la Educación Física (EF). Ese proceso sucedió/sucede en medio de diversas que comenzaron a ser problematizadas en estudios y debates. Instigada por ese proceso y por esas problematizaciones me aproximé a los Estudios Sociales de la Ciencia y Tecnología, los cuales motivaron la construcción de esta investigación, guiada por la siguiente interrogante: ¿de qué modo se hace ciencia en la EF brasilera? Con el fin de dar respuesta a dicha pregunta realicé un estudio etnográfico en dos grupos de investigación de la EF, con la duración aproximada de un año y cuatro meses en cada uno de ellos, en los cuales seguí a humanos y no-humanos, asociaciones y controversias. Al acompañar/vivir el día a día de esos grupos llegué a la conclusión de que existen múltiples ciencias de la EF. Fue posible identificar que, en la práctica, la ciencia de la EF es aquella desarrollada: por científicos que tienen interés en las ciencias duras; con dedicación exclusiva de los/as investigadores/as al laboratorio; con el uso de instrumentos tecnológicos; con el establecimiento de relaciones con empresas privadas; con respuestas a las cuestiones sobre comparaciones de fuerzas, torques y ejercicios; con metodologías científicas que ofrezcan respuestas a la pregunta ‘cómo vamos a medir(?)’; con la utilización de softwares que traducen al formato de números los resultados obtenidos en diferentes tests y equipamientos; con análisis estadístico; y con innumerables procesos de ‘purificación’. Además de esa, la ciencia de la EF es también aquella desarrollada: por científicos que son profesores de EF escolar; con base en cuestiones sobre educación; con objetivos de ‘comprender’; con experiencias adquiridas en las escuelas; con metodologías cualitativas de investigación; con instrumentos metodológicos que permiten ‘dar voz’ al profesorado y a los estudiantes investigados; con decisiones sobre las ‘categorías de análisis’; con resultados en el formato de un texto descriptivo y hermenéutico, con demarcaciones de que ‘es un texto para el universo académico’; con descripciones ‘sobre quien’ y ‘dónde’ los hechos científicos fueron construidos; y posicionándose en contraposición a una ciencia históricamente hegemónica en la EF. Mediante esas constataciones pasé a comprender/proponer que se hace/produce ciencia en la EF brasilera a partir de diferentes ontologías, las cuales, conforme los espacios/tiempos en que son promulgadas, existen de forma independiente o coexisten para que, juntas, se conviertan en una única ciencia de la EF. Apoyada en la noción de distribución identifiqué que los hechos científicos, las rutinas de los/as investigadores/as, los textos producidos y las elecciones de con quien dialogar establecen independencias académicas entre las ciencias vivenciadas por los grupos investigados. A su vez, al analizar las relaciones que esos grupos establecen con un programa de posgrado en EF, y los procesos de evaluación y fomento regidos por la Capes y el CNPQ, a través de la noción de coordinación, constaté que, para que se transformaran en ‘una’, las múltiples ciencias de la EF coexisten de manera jerárquica y a través de la asimilación de sus diferencias. Y a partir de la noción de inclusión reflexioné sobre los compromisos de las ciencias investigadas al asociarse con diferentes prácticas de intervención de la EF. Finalmente, al comprender que las ciencias de la EF son múltiples, el principal direccionamiento/ provocación de esta tesis es que al pensar/referir/indagar sobre la ciencia de la EF (nótese, en el singular) pasa a ser indispensable pensar/referir/indagar sobre los tipos de relaciones que fueron establecidas y se establecen entre las ciencias de la EF (nótese múltiples), y cuáles son sus consecuencias.