The aim of this research programme was to examine the 3P model of learning (Biggs, 1987a, 1999). The first stage necessarily involved an examination of the Study Process Questionnaire (SPQ) (Biggs, 1987a), an instrument developed to measure the process component of the model. The structure of the SPQ was examined utilising exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis of undergraduate responses (n= 260). The results indicated the higher-order factor structure of deep-achieving and surface-achieving-motive provided the most reliability and a better model fit than either the subscales or scales of the SPQ. The construct validity of the two constructs deep and surface was assessed next using a multitrait-multimethod matrix (MTMM) constructed from the three measures of the self-report questionnaire, interview ratings and written assessments from first-year students (n = 50). The results indicated good convergent validity between the deep scale of the SPQ and the interview ratings on the deep scale, between the deep scale on the SPQ and the written assessment ratings, and between the interview ratings and written assessment ratings. The results indicated good convergent validity between the surface scale on the SPQ and the interview ratings on the surface scale, but not between the surface scale on the SPQ and the written assessment ratings, and between the interview ratings and written assessment ratings. The discriminant validity between deep and surface was good for the SPQ, but not for either the interview or the written assessment. The findings indicate the deep and surface scales of the SPQ adequately measure the underlying deep and surface constructs. The retest reliability of the SPQ was then examined utilising Spearman’s Rho to assess the rank-order correlations with a sample of third-year students (n=87). Over a period of three months there were significant correlations for the surface motive, surface strategy, deep strategy, achieving motive and achieving strategy subscales of the SPQ, suggesting good reliability for these subscales. The results at the scale level of the SPQ result in similar conclusions. There was a moderate significant correlation for the surface, deep and achieving scales of the SPQ, suggesting the scales have good reliability over a period of three months. There was also a moderate significant correlation for the surface-achieving-motive and deep-achieving scales over a period of three months. The stability of SPQ scores was also assessed utilising a series of one-way repeated measures MANOVA’s with a sample of third-year undergraduates (n = 64). The results suggest some change occurs in self-reported use of approaches to learning between the first and third-years of an undergraduate degree programme. The role of the teaching-learning environment was next examined. Utilising a within-subjects design, undergraduate students (n=48) concurrently enrolled in traditional (viz. lecture and tutorial) and non-traditional (viz. workshops and group projects) subjects completed the SPQ to describe their approaches to learning in each subject. A series of 2x2 repeated measures MANOVA’s were undertaken. The results indicated students were likely to change their approach to learning based on their perceptions of the learning environment (traditional or non-traditional subject). However, those students identified as predominantly surface learners significantly increased their deep scale scores in the non-traditional subject when compared to deep learners. The next study examined a range of personality (locus of control, sensing function, thinking function, intelligence) and demographic variables (age, gender, year of study) to assess which were good predictors of deep and surface approaches to learning. A series of regression analyses identified age, sensing function and locus of control as significant predictors of the surface, surface-achieving-motive, and deep approaches to learning. Locus of control was found to be a significant predictor of the deep-achieving approach to learning. The final study examined the 3P model of learning. Based on the results of earlier studies in the research programme the situational component of the presage factors was not included. The model was examined using structural equation modelling (n= 394). Two initial models were tested using both the three (deep, surface, achieving) and two (surface-achieving-motive and deep-achieving) process factor models. The three process factor model provided the better model fit. The results suggest deep and surface approaches to learning do not mediate between personal characteristics and learning outcomes (i.e. GPA). The results of this series of studies suggest the need for further research into the SPQ and the 3P model of learning. The implications of the research programme are also discussed.

Siguiendo el marco teórico de Students´ Approaches to Learning y respondiendo a los objetivos del Proceso de Bolonia sobre la importancia de la formación docente, esta investigación analizó la fiabilidad y validez de dos instrumentos para medir los enfoques de enseñanza y de aprendizaje; describió la muestra (estudiantes de Máster en Formación del Profesorado de Secundaria) según sus enfoques, y observó que se habían producido cambios significativos en los enfoques de enseñanza; analizó la relación entre los enfoques de enseñanza y de aprendizaje; y presentó una nueva versión en español del cuestionario Approaches to Teaching Inventory (ATI) para medir los enfoques de enseñanza. En general los resultados apoyan estudios previos. Se observó que los enfoques se hicieron menos centrados en el profesor. Una mejora en los enfoques de enseñanza hacia tendencias centradas en el estudiante podría redundar positivamente en los enfoques de aprendizaje de los alumnos de educación secundaria. / Educational research has yielded a large number of studies on how university students accomplish a learning task, and how teachers approach their teaching profession. Following the Students´ Approaches to Learning (SAL) theoretical background under the new European framework, this doctoral dissertation analysed reliability and validity of two instruments to measure approaches to teaching and to learning; identified pre-service teachers´ approaches to learning, and to teaching at the beginning and upon completion of an initial teacher training course, in order to assess any changes; explored the relationship (correlation) between approaches to learning and approaches to teaching; and presented a revised Spanish version of the Approaches to Teaching Inventory. Overall, results support previous studies. Towards the end of the programme, participants became less teacher-focused, which highlights the positive effects teacher training might have, as identified in previous research, and hints towards how pre-service teachers might teach in the near future.

Rapid scientific and technological advances in health care mean that nurses need to keep learning and engage in professional education so that they can continue to provide safe and quality care. Education programs which prepare nurses for practice as a registered nurse have a vital role to play in ensuring that graduates are self-directed in responding to the need for ongoing learning throughout their professional career. In many countries, improving students’ readiness for self-directed learning has thus gained increasing recognition as being an important goal of nursing education programs. This level of interest in developing self-directedness in learning is evident in many policy documents and research in Taiwan. The aim of this study was to investigate factors influencing self-directed learning readiness amongst Taiwanese nursing students. A conceptual framework adopted from Biggs’s ‘3P model of teaching and learning’ was constructed to guide this study’s investigation. This study employed a two-staged mixed-method design to obtain a better understanding of Taiwanese students’ experience of SDL in undergraduate nursing programs. Stage one of the present study was a qualitative approach using semi-structured interview to explore students’ experiences with learning activities which they perceived to be self-directed in their undergraduate programs. Eight students were interviewed. Findings from this stage reveal that participants perceived a shift in teaching and learning styles between their previous nursing programs and the university. The more frequent use of student-directed learning activities, in which students were encouraged to be active and to take responsibility for their learning tasks, was one of the changes in teaching and learning approaches perceived by participants. Participants further suggested a number of factors that influenced the outcomes of these learning activities, including teacher-student interaction, facilitation process and learning resources. Stage two of this study used a quantitative approach consisting of two phases: instrument pilot testing and a cross-sectional survey. In the first phase, the instruments were translated into Chinese through a rigorous translation process and tested with a convenience sample of nursing students in Taiwan. Results indicated the translated instruments were reliable and stable. The second phase, a cross-sectional survey, was conducted to examine the conceptual framework of this study. A total of 369 undergraduate nursing students completed the questionnaire. Results of data analysis provides support for the conceptual framework proposed for this study, suggesting that students’ achievement goals and their perceptions of the learning environment significantly influence their adoption of learning approaches and the development of SDL readiness. Based on the results, this study provides practical implications that nurse educators may adopt to enhance students’ SDL readiness. This study also provides theoretical implications and recommendations for future research. It is envisaged that these recommendations may help future researchers focus their research design and further understandings of how to help students develop their ability to become self-directed learners.

I detta utvecklingsarbete studerade författaren en årskurs två klass i en gymnasieskola skola i Helsingborg. Författaren har försökt öka motivationen för elevernas egna lärande under en egen konstruerad och hållen lektionsplanering. Denna studie använder, genom hela utvecklingsarbete, en undervisningsmetod som heter Problembaserat lärande (PBL). Författaren konstruerade en undersökning med inspiration från Biggs et.al. (2001) "The Revised Two Factor Study Process Questionnaire "(R-SPQ-2F) och Ahlfeldt et al. (2005)" Student Engagement Survey"(SE). Under lektionsserien arbetade författaren med god undervisning genom att försöka för att göra lektionsserien meningsfull och låta eleverna arbeta i sina arbetsgrupper under några lektioner. Lektionsserien avslutades med en muntlig presentation av grupparbetet. Författaren genomförde också en intervju med författarens handledare. Resultaten visade att det var viktigt med meningsfullhet i lektionsmaterialet och det läraren har en stor betydelse för att kunna öka elevens motivation eget lärande. Ingen linjär relation visades emellertid och ingen större korrelation mellan enkätsfrågorna kan visas. Användningen av PBL i lektionsserien visade sig vara effektiv när eleverna uppnådde åtminstone de lägsta betygskriterierna för betyg E. / In this development work, the author studied a second grade class at an upper secondary school in Helsingborg. The author have tried to increase the motivation for the students own learning during an own constructed and held lesson plan. This study uses, throughout the development work, a teaching method called Problem-Based Learning (PBL). The author constructed a survey with inspiration from Biggs et.al. (2001) "The Revised Two Factor Study Process Questionnaire" (R-SPQ-2F) and Ahlfeldt et.al. (2005) "Student Engagement Survey" (SE). During the lesson series, the author have worked with good teaching by trying to make the lesson series meaningful and let the students work in their working groups with few lesson sessions. The lesson series ended with an oral presentation of the group work. The author have also conducted an interview with the author s supervisor. The results showed that it was important with meaningfulness in the lesson material and that the teacher has a great importance in order to be able to raise the motivation for the student's own learning. However, no linear relationship showed and no major correlation between the questions could be shown. The use of PBL in the lesson series turned out to be effective when the students achieved at least the lowest rating criteria for the grade E.