Células apresentadoras de antígeno (APCs) controlam as respostas de linfócitos T por múltiplos mecanismos, que incluem a expressão de moléculas co-estimuladoras, a produção de citocinas e outros mediadores. Estes mecanismos exercem influência não só na proliferação, diferenciação e polarização dos linfócitos T, mas também interferem na sobrevivência destas células. No presente trabalho, foi demonstrado que fator(es) solúvel(eis) produzido(s) por APCs ativadas via receptores do tipo Toll (TLRs) suprimem a morte induzida por ativação (AICD) de linfócitos T. Este efeito foi observado em APCs não estimuladas, porém foi significativamente maior após estimulação das APCs com lipopolissacarídeo (LPS). Através do uso de diferentes camundongos nocautes, foi mostrado que a produção do fator protetor induzida por LPS é dependente da via de TLR4/MyD88 e independente de TLR2 e CD14. Este fator foi identificado como prostaglandina E2 (PGE2) e foi demonstrado que os sobrenadantes derivados de APC e a PGE2 sintética bloqueiam a expressão de CD95L em linfócitos T estimulados via TCR/CD3. A inibição da expressão de CD95L reduz tanto a AICD como a morte de macrófagos, alvos do ataque citotóxico dos linfócitos T ativados. Foi demonstrado também que, ao invés de bloquear a via do CD95, a PGE2 potencializa a morte induzida por anticorpos anti-CD95 agonistas. Os receptores de PGE2, EP2 e EP4, parecem ser os responsáveis por mediar os efeitos supressores da PGE2 na AICD, já que a estimulação farmacológica destes receptores mimetiza o efeito protetor da PGE2 e seus respectivos antagonistas interferem com a proteção conferida pelos sobrenadantes de APCs e pela PGE2 sintética. A ativação do EP2 e do EP4 age sinergicamente na ativação das vias dependentes da PKA e de EPAC, que contribuem para a inibição da AICD. Por fim, a ativação dos principais fatores de transcrição envolvidos com a expressão de CD95L (NFAT, AP-1 e NF-kB) não é bloqueada por PGE2. Por outro lado, PGE2 induziu a expressão de ICER, um repressor transcripcional, através da ativação de CREB. Em conjunto, estes resultados indicam que as APCs podem modular os níveis de expressão de CD95L através da secreção de PGE2 em resposta ao LPS, através de uma via dependente de TLR4 e MyD88, com conseqüências tanto para a morte de linfócitos T quanto para a sua própria sobrevivência. / Antigen-presenting cells (APCs) control T-cell responses by multiple mechanisms, including the expression of co-stimulatory molecules and the production of cytokines and other mediators that control T-cell proliferation, survival and differentiation. In this present work, it was demonstrated that soluble factor(s) produced by Toll-like receptor (TLR)-activated APCs suppress activation-induced cell death (AICD). This effect was observed in non-stimulated APCs, but it was significantly increased after lipopolysaccharide (LPS) treatment. Using different KO mice, it was found that the LPS-induced protective factor is dependent on TLR4/MyD88 and independent of TLR2 and CD14. The protective factor was identified as prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and it was shown that both APC-derived supernatants and PGE2 prevented CD95L upregulation in T cells in response to TCR/CD3 stimulation, thereby avoiding both AICD and activated T cell killing of target macrophages. It was also demonstrated that instead of blocking CD95 pathway, PGE2 enhanced T cell death induced by agonistic anti-CD95 antibodies. The PGE2 receptors, EP2 and EP4, appear to be involved in AICD suppression since pharmacological stimulation of these receptors mimics the protective effect on T cells and their respective antagonists interfere with the protection induced by either APCs derived or synthetic PGE2. The engagement of EP2 and EP4 synergistically activates protein kinase A (PKA) and exchange protein directly activated by cAMP pathways to prevent AICD. Finally, the activation of the main transcription factors involved in CD95L expression (NFAT, AP-1 and NF-kB) is not avoided by PGE2. On the other hand, PGE2 induces the expression of ICER, a transcriptional repressor of CD95L, through CREB activation. Taken together, these results indicate that APCs can regulate T-cell levels of CD95L by releasing PGE2 in response to LPS through a TLR4/MyD88-dependent pathway, with consequences for both T cell and their own survival.

Les cellules dendritiques plasmacytoïdes (pDC) sont spécialisées dans la lutte antivirale, notamment grâce à leur capacité à sécréter des IFN de type I. Néanmoins, elles sont aussi impliquées dans Pactivation des réponses immunitaires adaptatives, et des lymphocytes T (LT) en particulier. C'est pourquoi, lors d'épisodes inflammatoires chroniques ou incontrôlés, les pDC sont à l'origine de l'initiation ou du maintien de syndromes inflammatoires et du développement de pathologies auto-immunes. Il doit donc exister des mécanismes permettant de contrôler l'activité de ces cellules. À l'aide d'un modèle in vivo d'inflammation non virale induite par l'injection d'un anticorps anti-CD3 (Ac aCD3), nous avons observé une apoptose des pDC dans différents organes lymphoïdes, et ce de façon dépendante de l'activation des lymphocytes T. De plus, nous avons pu observer que la diminution de la survie des pDC dans ce contexte inflammatoire n'était pas associée à l'orage cytokinique induit par l'efièt mitogénique de l'Ac aCD3. En revanche nos résultats montrent que les LT CD8* et la voie cytotoxique de la perforine dans ce contexte inflammatoire aigu sont responsables de la déplétion des pDC. Nous avons également étendu ces résultats à d'autres situations inflammatoires stériles comme lors de la maladie du greffon contre l'hôte. Ces données suggèrent que cette voie de régulation pourrait être utilisée à des fins thérapeutiques, afin de contrôler la survie des pDC impliquées dans la physiopathologie de syndromes auto-immuns comme le lupus érythémateux disséminé, le psoriasis, la sclérose en plaques ou encore le diabète de type I. / Plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDC) are specialized in type I interferons (IFN-I) secretion to control viral infections. However, these cells can also activate adaptive immune responses, and polarize T cells. Indeed, during chronic or uncontrolled inflammatory episodes, pDC can induce or maintain inflammatory syndromes and autoimmune diseases. So some mechanisms should exist to control the fonction of these cells. In an in vivo modcl of non viral inflammation induced by the injection a CD3-specific antibody (aCD3 Ab), we could observed pDC's apoptosis dependent of T cell activation in different lymphoid organs. Moreover, we could observe that this depletion of pDC was not associated with the cytokinic storm induced by the mitogenic effect after aCD3 Ab treatment. On the other hand our data shovved that CD8+ T cells and the perforin pathway in this acute inflammatory context are responsible for pDC depletion We also obtained the same results in other non viral inflammation settings such as graft versus host disease. Overall, these data suggesi that this regulation pathway could be used for therapeutic purposes, to control pDC survival and avoid their involvement in the physiopathology of autoimmune disorders like systemic lupus erythematosus, psoriasis, multiple sclerosis or type I diabetes.

L’autophagie est un mécanisme de dégradation lysosomale ubiquitaire impliqué dans la lutte contre les infections. Les agents infectieux ont développé des stratégies pour éviter ou utiliser l’autophagie à leur profit. Cette dégradation peut être hautement sélective grâce à l’intervention de « récepteurs autophagiques », comme p62/SQSTM1, chargés de l’adressage de substrats à la machinerie autophagique grâce à leur interaction avec les protéines de la famille ATG8. Notre équipe a montré que les protéines d’enveloppe du VIH‐1 (Env) déclenchent l’autophagie dans les lymphocytes T CD4. Lorsque ces cellules sont infectées de façon productive, le processus autophagique est bloqué par le virus. Au cours de ma thèse nous avons montré que l’autophagie exerce une fonction anti‐VIH en dégradant sélectivement son transactivateur Tat, via son interaction avec p62. Au contraire, lorsque les cellules cibles ne sont pas productivement infectées, car le cycle viral est interrompu après l’étape d’entrée, l’autophagie n’est pas contrôlée et conduit à la mort par apoptose, suggérant que l’autophagie dégrade sélectivement un facteur de survie cellulaire. Mes travaux de thèse montrent qu’Env induit un stress oxydatif impliqué dans la mort par apoptose des cellules cibles non infectées. Nos résultats préliminaires suggèrent que les peroxysomes seraient des cibles de l’autophagiedans ces conditions. Ces organelles étant chargées de détoxifier la cellule, nous avons donc formulé l’hypothèse que l’autophagie, induite par Env, conduit à la dégradation sélective des peroxysomes, entraînant l’accumulation espèces oxydées dans les cellules cibles et ainsi, leur mort par apoptose. / Autophagy is an ubiquitous degradation pathway involved in innate immunity. Numerouspathogens have therefore developed strategies to block or use the autophagy machinery to their own benefit. This degradation can be highly selective, thanks to the intervention of autophagy receptors, like p62/SQSTM1, involved in the specific targeting of substrates to autophagosomes after their interaction with the ATG8 family of autophagic proteins. Our team has demonstrated that the HIV‐1 envelope proteins (Env) are responsible for autophagy triggering in CD4 T lymphocytes. If the target cells become productively infected, the autophagy process is blocked by the virus. During my thesis, we report that autophagy exerts an anti‐HIV effect by selectively degrading the HIV‐1 transactivator Tat, via its interaction withp62. On the contrary, if the target cells are not productively infected because the viral cycle is interrupted after the entry step, autophagy is not controlled and leads to apoptosis. These results suggest that the degradation of cellular components could be responsible for the induction of apoptosis. My thesis work indicates that Env induces an oxidative stress in the uninfected target cells and that this stress is involved in their death. Our preliminary results suggest that the peroxisomes would be targeted to autophagic degradation in these conditions. As these organelles are involved in the detoxification of the cells, we have made the assumption that Env‐induced autophagy triggers the selective degradation of these peroxisomes that leads to the accumulation of reactive oxygen species, and ultimately to apoptotic cell death.

The ability of our immune system to mount a response against non-self-antigens legitimates the semi-allogenic fetus as a target for maternal immune attack. Yet, in a normal pregnancy the fetus stays well protected due to the concerted action of several diverse mechanisms which either suppress the fetal allogenicity or spatio-temporally inhibit maternal immune cells’ growth and functions. One such factor which aids in the establishment, progression and maintenance of pregnancy is the 28 kDa dimeric sialylated glycoprotein Glycodelin-A (GdA). Synthesized by the endometrium and decidua, this protein has myriad functions, the most important being that of immunosuppression. GdA is inhibitory to all hematopoietic cells and also induces programmed cell death in activated T cells and monocytes via the intrinsic mitochondrial pathway. In the Introductory chapter of this thesis, details about GdA and the other isoforms of the glycodelin family of proteins have been presented which highlight the involvement of glycodelins in primate pregnancy, with emphasis on GdA and its pleiotropic functions associated with reproduction in females. Activated T-lymphocytes against paternal antigens are found in the uterine compartment and in the maternal circulation throughout pregnancy. Activated CD8+ T-lymphocytes have been reported to pre-dominate the uterine T-lymphocyte population during pregnancy and unlike the CD4+ T cells, are retained until term. Studies show that activated CD8+ T-lymphocytes are necessary for the establishment and progression of early pregnancy. However, how these lymphocytes harbouring cytotoxic activity are regulated at the later stages of pregnancy is poorly defined. We attempted to uncover a possible mechanism of regulation of CTL (cytotoxic T lymphocyte) activity (if any) during primate pregnancy by GdA. In the absence of established human CD8+ T cell lines, we first standardized the generation of CTLs in-vitro from hPBMCs (human peripheral blood mononuclear cells) by alloactivating them with an ovarian carcinoma cell line OVCAR-3 utilized as a mimic of an allograft. The details of the rationale behind using this method for generating CTLs and the alloactivation methodology have been put together in the Chapter 1 of this thesis. The activation of hPBMCs was confirmed by the surface expression of an early activation marker CD69 and tritiated thymidine incorporation. Differentiation of CD8+ T cells into effector cells was confirmed by the upregulation of perforin and granzyme transcripts by real time RT-PCR analysis. Target-cell specific cytolytic activity of the CTLs was assessed by using a cytotoxicity measurement assay- JAM test, details of which also form a part of chapter 1. Having generated effective CTLs in vitro, we tested the effect of GdA on CTL activity. Our findings, on the effect of GdA on CTLs have also been discussed in the Chapter 1. We observed that the cytolytic activity of CTLs was significantly reduced by GdA treatment albeit at a dose three to four times higher than that required for inhibiting CD8+ T cell proliferation, implying that a mechanism of temporal regulation of CTL activity operated at the feto-maternal interface, thereby contributing to the establishment and progression of pregnancy. Interestingly, in our quest to uncover the mechanism of inhibition of CTL activity by GdA, we found that the inhibition of proliferation was comparable in both CD4+ and CD8+ T-lymphocytes at all dosages of GdA, but unlike CD4 + T cells CD8 + T cells were resistant to GdA-induced apoptosis even at high dosage of GdA. Hence we could rule out that the loss of CTL activity upon GdA treatment was due to CD8+ T cell death. Further, we assessed the functional competence of alloactivated CTLs by quantitating the mRNA transcripts of key cytolytic molecules; perforin and granzyme B, in GdA treated alloactivated hPBMCs and found that there was a significant reduction in the mRNA of these cytolytic molecules. Additionally, we also found that GdA treated CD8+ T cells exhibited impaired release of the cytolytic molecules by the process of degranulation, measured by the surface exposure of LAMPs (Lysosome associated membrane proteins) on the surface of cells by flow cytometry and as seen by the retention of perforin protein in them assessed by intracellular staining and flow cytometry. Intrigued by the observations, we probed for the regulators of perforin and granzymes in CTLs. EOMES (Eomesodermin) and T- Bet are well known transcription factors which control the differentiation of CD8+ T cells into effector and memory cell CD8+ T cell type. Interestingly we found that the expression of EOMES was significantly reduced in activated GdA treated hPBMCs, both at the transcriptional and translational level, however T-Bet did not show any variation in expression upon GdA treatment. All the above findings have been compiled in Chapter 2 along with our studies on the possibility of GdA to induce a tolerogenic phenotype in T cells. We found there was no difference in the mRNA level and surface expression of CD103 and CD28 in alloactivated PBMCs, while FOXP3 mRNA did not show any variation upon GdA treatment, indicating that GdA does not induce a tolerogenic phenotype in T-lymphocytes, further confirming our data that the decreased cytolytic activity of CTLs upon GdA treatment was not due to tolerance but due to impaired function Interestingly, IL-2/IL-2R signaling is known to directly regulate perforin and granzyme expression as well as it plays a role in the expression of T-Bet and EOMES. Therefore, as a read out of IL-2 signaling we checked for the surface expression of the high affinity IL-2R subunit, CD25. As expected, CD25 expression was more pronounced in CD4+ T cells and consistent with published reports in literature that GdA suppresses IL-2 synthesis, we also observed a significant reduction in the CD25bright population in both the T cell subsets (CD4+ and CD8+) upon GdA treatment (addressed in Chapter 3). This finding supports a mechanism of action of GdA, wherein the cytolytic activity of CTLs is compromised by the downregulation of EOMES, triggered by the low IL-2 levels. This translates to aberrant synthesis of key cytolytic molecules perforin and granzyme B, leading to low efficiency CTLs, which are further disabled by defective degranulation machinery induced by GdA. We did not look into the mechanistic aspects of how GdA suppresses degranulation, which can be addressed later as a part of another study. Building up on our observations, and taking cues from existing literature, that IL-2 regulates the expression of pro and anti-apoptotic protein levels within activated cells, we looked at the expression profile of Bcl-2 (anti-apoptotic) and Bax (pro-apoptotic) in activated PBMCs upon GdA treatment. There was a significant reduction in the total mRNA and protein level of Bcl-2, while a very significant increase in Bax mRNA and protein was observed. Chapter 3 of the thesis also presents this data and explains a plausible mechanism of the inhibitory effect of GdA on T-lymphocytes. In Chapter 2, we have also addressed the probable reasons for the differences in the responses of CD4+ and CD8+ T-lymphocytes to GdA. Interestingly, surface glycan profile of CD4+ and CD8+ T-lymphocytes upon activation and the surface expression of the most probable receptor for GdA i.e. CD7 was comparable in both the T cell subsets, indicating that possibly the downstream signaling events leading to GdA-induced apoptosis and not the surface binding of GdA may vary in CD4+ and CD8+ T-lymphocytes, due to which we observed a difference in the extent of apoptosis induced in these cell types by GdA although the inhibition of proliferation in both the subsets was comparable. In summary, this study is the first to provide evidence for a possible mechanism of temporal regulation of CTL activity at the feto-maternal interface, where activated CD8+ T cells are abundantly present. We can say with much confidence that binding of GdA to T-lymphocytes causes sub-optimal IL-2 signaling which translates into reduced expression of EOMES and hence downregulation of perforin and granzyme B, leading to impaired CTL activity in CD8+ T-lymphocytes, which is further weakened by the impaired release of the cytolytic molecules from them. Insufficient IL-2 signaling in the presence of GdA can also be a cause of inhibition of proliferation in T-lymphocytes, while the resulting decrease in anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2 and increase in pro-apoptotic protein Bax seem to contribute to the induction of apoptosis in CD4+ T cell. It will be interesting to explore the mediators involved in the IL-2 signaling pathway that are differentially regulated in CD4+ and CD8+ T cells which confer resistance in CD8+ T cells to GdA-induced apoptosis and also the mechanism by which GdA regulates the degranulation of cytolytic vesicles in CTLs needs to be worked out.

La pathogénie du syndrome néphrotique idiopathique est inconnue, mais de nombreux arguments clinques et expérimentaux favorisent l’hypothèse d’une pathogénie dys-immunitaire à expression immunologique et rénale, au cours de laquelle on observerait une altération des lymphocytes T. Cependant, le mécanisme exact reste encore mal connu. Récemment, le Rituximab, un anticorps dirigé contre l’antigène CD20, a montré une efficacité à induire une rémission à moyen et long terme suggérant l’implication d’une dysfonction des lymphocytes B et/ou un défaut de coopération T-B. Notre laboratoire a isolé un nouveau gène C-MIP dont l’expression est induite dans certaines sous-populations lymphocytaires T et B, ainsi que dans les podocytes de patients atteints de SNI en phase de poussée mais quasiment indétectable chez les sujets sains.Dans ces travaux, ancillaires au PHRC NEPHRUTIX, nous avons étudié les perturbations lymphocytaires T, avant, au moment de la rechute et en période de rémission au cours de syndrome néphrotique à lésions glomérulaires minimes et l’effet du traitement par le Rituximab. Dans cette étude, nous avons mis en évidence que la rechute était associée à un effondrement des lymphocytes T régulateurs, une baisse profonde de l’interleukine-2 ainsi qu’à une surexpression significative de C-MIP, précédant la survenue de la rechute. Ces modifications se restaurent en rémission. Enfin, la rémission obtenue dans le bras Rituximab, entraîne une diminution des lymphocytes T folliculaires (Tfh), des iNKT et des cellules double-négatives DN-TCR Vα24, suggérant que le SNLGM implique un défaut des réponses immunitaires innées et adaptatives, qui peut être stabilisé par un traitement par Rituximab.Afin d’étudier le rôle de C-MIP, nous avons généré des souris transgéniques sur-exprimant ce gène dans les lymphocytes T matures périphériques. Cette surexpression est à l’origine d’un phénotype lymphocytaire altéré marqué par une accumulation de lymphocytes T naïfs, un effondrement des cytokines activatrices de type Th1 et Th2 et une accumulation des formes inactives des Src kinases. Ces résultats suggèrent que C-MIP, en inhibant les Src kinases, est un régulateur négatif de l’activation T impliqué dans la signalisation proximale et pourrait être impliqué dans l’hypo-réactivité lymphocytaire T observée chez les patients atteints de SNLGM actif. / The pathogenesis of minimal-change nephrotic syndrom (MCNS) is unknown, but, supported by many clinical and experimental arguments, it was suggested that MCNS is a dys-immune disorder with immunogical and renal expression, during which T-cell alteration would be observed. However, the exact mechanism remains unknown. Recently, Rituximab, a B-cell depleting agent, is effctive in inducing mid- and long-term remission suggesting involvement of B-cell dysfunction and/or lack of T-B cooperation. Our laboratory identified a new gene: C-MIP. We have shown that C-MIP abundance is increased in some T and B lymphocyte subpopulations, as well as in podocytes of MCNS patients during relapse phase but undetectable in healthy subjects.In this work, ancillary to the NEPHRUTIX PHRC, we studied T-cell disturbances before and during the relapse or during the remission time in MCNS and the effect of Rituximab therapy. In this study, we found that relapses were associated with significant decrease in regulatory T cell and interleukin-2 expression, while C-MIP abundance was significantly increased. These changes are restored during remission time. Finally, remission after Rituximab therapy leads to a decrease in follicular T cells (Tfh), iNKT and double-negative (CD4- CD8-) T cells expressing the invariant Vα24 chain, suggesting that MCNS involves a disorder of innate and adaptative immune response, which can be stabilized by Rituximab treatment.In order to study the C-MIP role, we generated transgenic mice overexpressing this gene in the peripheral mature T-cells. This overexpression leads to an altered lymphocyte phenotype with an accumulation of naive T lymphocytes, a significant decrease of Th1 and Th2 activating cytokines and accumulation of inactive Src kinases. These results suggest that, by inhibiting Src kinases, C-MIP is a negative regulator of activation T involved in proximal signalling and may be responsable of the lymphocyte T hypo-reactivity observed in patients with active MCNS.

L'obésité et ses complications métaboliques comme le syndrome métabolique (SM) deviennent des épidémies mondiales qui partagent une composante commune qu’est l'inflammation chronique. Les acteurs principaux de cette inflammation sont les lymphocytes T. L’utilisation des polyphénols capables de moduler les fonctions de lymphocytes T pour lutter contre les maladies métaboliques inflammatoires fait l’objet de nombreuses investigations. Dans cette étude, nous avons analysé l'effet de la delphinidine, un anthocyane connu pour préserver l'intégrité de l'endothélium par un mécanisme dépendant au récepteur aux oestrogènes alpha (ERα), sur la prolifération, l’apoptose et la différentiation de lymphocytes T isolés à partir de sujets sains et de patients atteints de SM. La delphinidine diminue la prolifération et l’apoptose de lymphocytes T isolés à partir de sujets sains et stimulés par différents agents mitogènes et proapoptotiques, respectivement. Par ailleurs, la delphinidine inhibe la différenciation des lymphocytes vers des profilsTh1, Th17 et Treg, sans affecter le profil Th2. Enfin, la delphinidine inhibe la prolifération, l’apoptose et la différenciation des lymphocytes T isolés à partir de patients présentant des risques cardiovasculaires associés au SM. Les mécanismes moléculaires mis en jeu ont été identifiés, avec l’implication d'ERα, d'ERK1/2, de NFAT et d'HDAC en relation avec le signal calcique. Nos résultats suggèrent que la delphinidine, en agissant sur ERα, via des cibles cellulaires multiples, pourrait représenter une nouvelle approche pour traiter les troubles métaboliques inflammatoires chez les patients présentant des facteurs de risque cardiovasculaire. / Obesity and its metabolic complications like metabolic syndrome (MetS) are becoming worldwide epidemics which share a common component of chronic low-grade inflammation. T lymphocytes play a central role in the triggering of this inflammatory process. Modulation of T lymphocytes functions by using polyphenols, as a possible approach to alleviate chronic inflammatory metabolic diseases has become the subject of many scientific investigations. Here, we analyzed the effect of delphinidin, an anthocyanin known to possess vasculoprotection properties, via an estrogen receptor alpha (ERα)-dependent mechanism, on proliferation, apoptosis and differentiation of T lymphocytes from healthy subjects and MetS patients. We found that delphinidin decreased proliferation and apoptosis of T lymphocytes from healthy subjects stimulated by different mitogen and apoptotic agents, respectively. Further, delphinidin suppressed the differentiation of hese cells toward Th1, Th17 and Treg without affecting Th2 subsets. Interestingly, delphinidin inhibited proliferation, apoptosis and differentiation of T cells taken from patients with cardiovascular risks associated with MetS. We also identified the molecular mechanism involved, with the implication of ERα, ERK1/2, NFAT and HDAC pathways in relation with calcium signaling. Together, we propose that delphinidin by acting on ERα, via multiple cellular targets, may represent a new approach in the treatment of chronic inflammatory metabolic disorders caused by excessive T lymphocyte responses, in with cardiovascular risk factors.

Previously, our lab demonstrated that heterologous immunity could result in either gain or loss of protective immunity and alteration in immune pathology following infection by a second un-related pathogen. One of the prototypical models to study T cell-mediated heterologous immunity involves two distantly related arenaviruses, namely lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) and Pichinde virus (PV). Each virus encodes a cross-reactive CD8 epitope that has six out of eight in amino acid (aa) similarity with respect to its counterpart at the position 205-212 of the nucleoprotein (NP205). Heterologous challenge between LCMV and PV results in 1) expansion of the cross-reactive NP205-specific CD8 T cell responses and alteration of the immunodominance hierarchy and 2) partial protective immunity (heterologous immunity). Our lab showed that cross-reactive NP205-specific CD8 T cell receptor (TCR) repertoires become extremely narrowed following a heterologous challenge between LCMV and PV. Therefore, I questioned if LCMV NP205 epitope escape variants could be isolated during a dominant but narrowed crossVI reactive NP205-specific CTL response. In the first part of my thesis, I describe the isolation of a LCMV NP-V207A CTL escape variant in vivo using PV-immune animals challenged with LCMV clone 13. The LCMV NP-V207A variant contains a point mutation, which results in the switching of valine to alanine at the third non-anchoring residue of the LCMV NP205 CD8 epitope. Immunization of mice with the LCMV NP-V207A variant results in a significantly diminished cross-reactive NP205-specific CD8 T cell response. This suggests that the point mutation is responsible for the loss in the immunogenicity of the LCMV NP205 CD8 epitope. In addition, an in vitrorescued(r) recombinant LCMV variant (r/V207A) that encodes the original mutation also induces a highly diminished cross-reactive NP205-specific CD8 T cell response in mice. In agreement with the result obtained from the intracellular cytokine assays (ICS), MHC-Ig dimers loaded with the LCMV NP205 (V-A) peptide could only detect a minute population of cross-reactive NP205-specific CD8 T cells in mice infected with r/V207A variant virus. All the data indicate that the point mutation results in a significant loss in immunogenicity of the LCMV NP205 CD8 epitope. So far, no direct link between the cross-reactive NP205-specific CD8 T cells and heterologous immunity had been established in this system. Therefore, we immunized mice with either LCMV WT or the LCMV NP-V207A variant virus and showed that a significant loss of heterologous immunity is associated with the group immunized with LCMV NP-V207A variant virus. Again, r/V207Aimmune animals also displayed a significant loss in heterologous immunity following PV challenge. This suggests that the cross-reactive NP205-specific CD8 T cells mediate the majority of heterologous immunity between LCMV and PV in vivo. In comparison to the PV-immune control group, PV clearance kinetics mediated by the cross-reactive NP205-specific CD8 T cells were significantly delayed. Finally, these data also suggest that bystander activation plays very little role in heterologous immunity between LCMV and PV. Many studies in murine systems and humans suggest that cross-reactive T cells are often associated with immune pathology. We showed that in mice that were sequentially immunized with PV and LCMV (PV+LCMV WT double immune mice), there was a development of a high incidence and high level of immune pathology known as acute fatty necrosis (AFN) following a final PV challenge. The data suggest that these cross-reactive NP205-specific CD8 T cells might play an important role in immune pathogenesis. Therefore, we asked if the cross-reactive NP205-specific CD8 T cells play a role in immune pathogenesis by comparing the incidence of AFN between the (PV+LCMV WT) and the (PV+LCMV NP-V207A) double immune mice following a final PV challenge. In agreement with our hypothesis, the result showed the (PV+LCMV NP-V207A) double immune mice developed a significantly lower incidence of AFN compared to the (PV+LCMV WT) double immune mice. However, linear correlation studies comparing the frequency of different antigen-specific CD8 T cell populations within the (PV+LCMV WT) double immune mice before challenge and the severity of AFN following the PV challenge suggest that two opposing antigen-specific CD8 T cell populations are involved in determining the final outcome of the immune pathology. The PV NP38-45-specific CD8 T cell response (PV NP38) appears to be more protective than the cross-reactive NP205-specific CD8 T cell response. In addition, a positive linear correlation between the ratio of cross-reactive NP205 to PV NP38 and the severity of AFN seem to suggest that these cross-reactive populations are important contributors to immune pathogenesis. Peptide titration studies examining the functional avidities to different antigenic specificities suggest that both populations consist of high avidity TCR and peptide MHC (TCR:pMHC) interactions. However, skewing within the cross-reactive NP205 specific CD8 T cell response towards the LCMV NP205 epitope response in one of the (PV+LCMV WT) double immune mice suggests that cross-reactive NP205 specific CD8 T cells could constitute a sub-optimal response to a PV challenge. In summary, I questioned what might be some of the immunological consequences of heterologous immunity in this model. First of all, we have established a direct link between the cross-reactive NP205-specific CD8 T cell response and heterologous immunity in LCMV and PV. Second of all, I demonstrated that a LCMV NP205 epitope escape variant could be selected in vivo under the conditions of heterologous immunity. In addition, I showed that PV clearance kinetic was significantly delayed in cross-reactive NP205-mediated heterologous immunity as compared to homologous challenge. Finally, we demonstrated that cross-reactive NP205-specific CD8 T cells could play an important role in immune pathogenesis in this model. However, correlation data indicate that two opposing antigen-specific CD8 T cell populations could ultimately decide the outcome and magnitude of immune pathology in each individual mouse. All the data presented above strongly suggest that the cross-reactive NP205 CD8 T cells play a crucial role in immune pathology in this model system by 1) interfering with the regular establishment of immunodominance hierarchy orders, or 2) exhibiting a sub-optimal protective immunity due to the nature of the cross-reactive epitope.

L’immunothérapie basée sur le transfert de lymphocytes T (LT) spécifiques de la tumeur est une approche prometteuse contre le cancer. Pour activer et amplifier de tels LT, principale étape limitante de cette approche, des cellules présentatrices d’antigène artificielles (CPAA) ont été développées au laboratoire. Ces CPAA ont été construites à partir de fibroblastes murins NIH/3T3 transduits à l’aide de vecteurs gammarétroviraux afin d’exprimer les principaux éléments nécessaires à l’activation de LT humains. Ces CPAA nous permettent d’obtenir des LT mémoires souches (TSCM : CD95+CD45RA+CD62L+CCR7+), LT très peu différenciés récemment identifiés chez l’homme. Ces TSCM ont été décrits comme étant du plus grand intérêt pour l’immunothérapie en raison de leur capacité d’auto-renouvellement et de leur faculté à se différencier en LT effecteursefficaces. Pour optimiser l’amplification de TSCM spécifiques, nous avons notamment étudié les effets sur les LT de l’expression de différentes molécules de costimulation par nos CPAA (CD80, CD70 et 4-1BBL). Les protéines MART-1 et MELOE-1, surexprimées dans les mélanomes, ont été utilisées comme antigènes modèles pour ces travaux. Les CPAA CD80+CD70+ et CD80+CD70+4-1BBL+ sont les plus prometteuses pour maintenir le phénotype des TSCM. Une étude exhaustive des CPAA CD80+CD70+ a montré que nous pouvions obtenir un plus grand nombre de TSCM fonctionnels spécifiques de MART-1 et de MELOE-1 de manière reproductible avec ces CPAA. Dans une seconde étude, nous avons pu montrer que les CPAA CD80+CD70+4-1BBL+ permettaient d’obtenir le plus grand nombre de LT spécifiques fonctionnels et très peu différenciés après purification et restimulation de LT spécifiques stimulés une première fois par les CPAA CD80+CD70+. Ces travaux devraient nous permettre, après le développement d’un modèle murin, de proposer de nouvelles stratégies d’immunothérapie basées sur l’obtention grâce à nos CPAA optimisées de LT spécifiques anti-tumoraux capables d’assurer une protection à long terme aux patients. / Immunotherapy based on the transfer of tumor-specific T lymphocytes (TLs) is a promising approach against cancer. To activate and amplify such TLs, main limiting step of this approach, artificial antigen presenting cells (AAPCs) have been developed in the laboratory. These AAPCs have been constructed from NIH/3T3 murine fibroblasts transduced with gammaretroviral vectors to express the principal elements required to activate human TLs. With these AAPCs, we can obtain anti-tumor stem cell memory TLs (TSCM: CD95+CD45RA+CD62L+CCR7+), which are very limitedly differentiated TLs recently identified in humans. These TLs have been recently described as cells of great interest for immunotherapy because of their self-renewal capacity and their ability to differentiate into effective effector TLs. To improve the amplification of specific TSCM, we notably studied the effects on TLs of the expression of different co-stimulatory molecules by our AAPCs (CD80, CD70 and 4-1BBL). MART-1 and MELOE-1, proteins that are overexpressed in melanoma, were used as model antigens in this work. CD80+CD70+ and CD80+CD70+4-1BBL+ AAPCs appear to be the most promising ones for maintaining a TSCM phenotype. An exhaustive study of CD80+CD70+ AAPCs showed that we could reproducibly get greater numbers of MART-1- and MELOE-1-specific functional TSCM with these AAPCs. In another study, we have shown that CD80+CD70+4-1BBL+ AAPCs enabled us to get the greatest number of functional and very limitedly differentiated specific TLs after purification and restimulation of specific TLs stimulated first with CD80+CD70+ AAPCs. This work should allow us, after the development of a murine model, to propose new immunotherapy strategies based on the possibility of obtaining with our optimized AAPCs anti-tumor specific TLs capable of ensuring patient long term protection.

Les particules fines atmosphériques (PF) sont capables de pénétrer dans les poumons où certains composés transportés peuvent interagir avec les cellules pulmonaires et atteindre la circulation sanguine. L'exposition aux PF affecte particulièrement les populations sensibles telles que les personnes agées. Cette thèse s'inscrit dans une démarche d'identification des effets des PF sur les lymphocytes T humains (LT) tout en visant à déterminer des biomarqueurs liés à l'exposition et à évaluer la variation de la réponse cellulaire en fonction de l'âge. Des LT ont été isolés de prélèvements sanguins de 91 volontaires appartenant à trois classes d'age (20-30, 45-55, 70-85 ans) puis exposés ex vivo pendant 72h à 45 µg/µl de PF collectées à Dunkerque. Les étapes d'isolement, purification et activation des LT ont d'abord été optimisées. Suite à la caractérisation de la population échantillonnée, une population d'étude homogène a été sélectionnée ( 10 sujets / classe d'âge). Nous avons mis en évidence une induction génique d'enzymes impliquées dans l'activation métabolique des HAP identifiés dans l'échantillon de PF. La caractérisation du profil des Lt a permis de proposer un profil mixte Th1/Th2 causé par l'exposition. L'étude transcriptomique des miARN a mis en évidence une surexpression de miR-124-3p impliqué dans la régulation de plusieurs fonctions au niveau du système immunitaire et de miR-1290 impliqué dans plusieurs types de cancer. Quant à l'influence de l'âge, une surexpression des gènes codant pour les enzymes antioxydantes (NQO1 et HMOX1), une augmentation de la concentration des cytokines (IL-4 et IL-13) ainsi qu'une modification du profil d'expression de certains miARN ont été notées chez les sujets les plus âgés. / Atmospheric fine particulate matter (FP) are able to enter the lungs where some compounds can interact with lung cells and reach the bloodstream . Exposure to FP affects in particular susceptible populations such as the elderly. This thesis is part of a project aiming to identify the effects of FP on human T lymphocytes (LT) while attempting to determine biomarkers related to exposure and to evaluate the variation of the cellular response as a function of age. LT were isolated from blood samples of 91 volunteers belonging to three age groups (20-30, 45-55, 70-85 years) then exposed ex vivo for 72h to 45 µg/µl of FP collected in Dunkirk. The steps of isolation, purification and activation of LT were first optimized. Following the characterization of the sampled population, a homogeneous study population was selected (10 subjects/age class). We have demonstrated an induction of the genes coding for the enzymes involved in the metabolic activation of PAH identified in the PF sample. Characterization of the LT profile made it possible to propose a mixed th1/th2 profile cause by the exposure. Teh transcriptomic study of miRNAs revealed an overexpression of miR-124-3p involved in the regulation of several functions in the immune system and miR-1290 involved in several types of cancer. As for the influence of age, overexpression of the genes coding for the antioxidant enzymes (NQO1 and HMOX1), an increase in the concentration of cytokines (IL-4 and IL-13) as well as a modification of the expression profile of some miRNAs were noted on the elderly.

Ex vivo expansion of T lymphocytes is a central process in the generation of cellular therapies targeted at tumors and other disease-relevant structures,which currently cannot be reached by established pharmaceuticals. The influence of culture conditions on T cell functions is, however, incompletely understood. In clinical applications of ex vivo expanded T cells, so far, a relatively classical standard cell culture methodology has been established. The expanded cells have been characterized in both preclinical models and clinical studies mainly using a therapeutic endpoint, for example antitumor response and cytotoxic function against cellular targets, whereas the influence of manipulations of T cells ex vivo including transduction and culture expansion has been studied to a much lesser detail, or in many contexts remains unknown. This includes the circulation behavior of expanded T cells after intravenous application, their intracellular metabolism and signal transduction, and their cytoskeletal (re)organization or their adhesion, migration, and subsequent intra-tissue differentiation. This review aims to provide an overview of established T cell expansion methodologies and address unanswered questions relating in vivo interaction of ex vivo expanded T cells for cellular therapy.