Desvios da norma padrão, comumente chamados de \"erros\", são fatos comuns na escrita dos aprendizes da variante culta de uma língua materna como o português brasileiro. Tratados como um \"mal a ser combatido\", eles são, na verdade, importantes indícios do processo de assimilação da escrita culta pelo falante nativo. Revelam qual a tendência da transformação que naturalmente ocorre numa língua, demonstrando, por exemplo, a obsolência das gramáticas tradicionais, que não aceitam determinadas construções já muito freqüentes. Mas seria possível detectar algum padrão desses desvios? Haveria desvios típicos de um determinado perfil de redatores? Essas indagações motivaram a presente investigação, que se baseou na concepção de que esses estudos são de natureza empírica, comprometidos com a noção de que a língua funciona tal como um sistema probabilístico, de onde é possível prever tendências, por exemplo, de mudança. Falamos, pois, de uma investigação à luz da Lingüística de Corpus. Composto de redações do Exame Nacional do Ensino Médio (ENEM), edição de 2002, cedidas pelo Instituto Nacional de Estudos e Pesquisas Educacionais (INEP) juntamente com determinados traços do perfil dos redatores, construímos um corpus que foi batizado de Corvo, e se ocupou de uma faixa específica de textos: a de pior desempenho no ENEM no quesito domínio da norma culta. Observamos, desse modo, textos em que, supostamente, há freqüência maior de desvios e maior variedade de tipos de desvios. Nossa metodologia de pesquisa apoiou-se no uso do revisor gramatical automático ReGra, bastante popular no país e que auxilia o usuário no uso correto do português culto padrão. Além disso, construímos um material próprio de detecção e classificação dos desvios gramaticais, aumentando a capacidade de tratamento automático dos textos. Assim, foi possível gerar uma versão do corpus anotada em desvios, i.e., os textos apresentam indicações de quando e qual tipo de desvios ocorrem. Como resultado temos um mapeamento do Corvo; ou seja, um panorama dos desvios típicos de um determinado tip o de perfil de redator. Constatamos a deficiência ortográfica como o traço típico do grupo de indivíduos investigado, mas, sobretudo, que a ortografia é motor para o pleno funcionamento de uma revisão gramatical automática. O revisor ReGra mostrou-se incapaz de processar satisfatoriamente textos desse tipo de redator, mas, ainda assim, comprovou que esses textos apresentam desvios gramaticais de tratamento complexo, cuja intervenção do revisor, se acontece, pouco altera na qualidade geral dos mesmos. Com respeito à tipologia de desvio, pudemos constatar a validade da tipologia aplicada na pesquisa, que advém do ReGra e, portanto, está à margem das discussões teóricas ortodoxas. De fato, há recorrência de tipos de desvios, e isso numa freqüência que nos autoriza admitir a fraca assimilação de certas regras gramaticais tomadas como básicas (p.ex., a pontuação, a concordância e a regência). Constatamos, com relação ao perfil de redatores, que textos com maior potencial para a revisão da escrita, i.e., aqueles que alteram significativamente a qualidade textual com interferências pontuais de revisão, são justamente os produzidos pelos concluintes do ensino médio e não pelos egressos. / Deviations from the standard norm, usually called \'mistakes\', are common events in writing pieces of language learners speakers of a native language such as Brazilian Portuguese. They are treated as \'an evil that must be fought\'. They are, in fact, important evidence of the acquisition process of writing in the standard norm by the native speaker. They reveal the transformation trend, which normally occurs in a language, showing, for instance, the obsolescence of traditional grammars that do not accept certain patterns, which are frequent nonetheless. However, is it possible to identify a pattern in these deviations? Are there common deviations among a certain profile of students? These are the questions motivating this study, which is based on the concept that these investigations are empirical in nature, and are marked by the notion that language operates as a probabilistic system, in which it is possible to forecast trends of change, for example. We are, therefore, speaking of an investigation in the light of Corpus Linguistics. We compiled a corpus of essays written during the National Middle Education Exam (ENEM) carried out in 2002. These essays were obtained with the National Institute for Research in Education (INEP) together with the profile of the students. The corpus was called Corvo, and it is made up of a certain bracket of texts: those having obtained the worst performance rate in the ENEM in the standard norm category. We observed, therefore, texts in which there are, allegedly, a greater frequency of deviations and a greater variety of kinds of deviations. The research methodology was supported by the electronic grammar checker - ReGra - which is very popular in the country, and helps the user in writing standard Portuguese correctly. In addition, we built a specific tool for identifying and classifying grammar deviations, thus, increasing the ability to treat the texts electronically. Therefore, it was possible to generate an annotated version of the corpus according to the deviations, i.e., the texts were annotated according to when and what kind of deviations they presented. As a result, we have a mapping of the Corvo; that is, a view of the common deviations of students belonging to a certain profile. We identified poor spelling as a common feature of the group, but, above all, that spelling is the engine enabling a full grammatical check to operate. The ReGra grammar checker was not able to satisfactorily process these kinds of texts, but, even so, it proved that these texts presented complex grammar deviations, and the intervention of the checker, when it is applied, little alters their overall quality. In regard to deviation typology, we identified the validity of the typology used in this study, which results from the ReGra and, therefore, lies in the outskirts of orthodox theoretical discussions. In fact, certain kinds of deviations reoccur at a frequency that enables us to admit a poor assimilation of certain grammatical rules considered basic (e.g., punctuation, agreement and use of prepositions). We found that in regard to the profile of the students, texts with a greater writing check potential, that is, a check that would significantly improve text quality through individual checking interferences, are te xts produced by students who finished middle education and not those produced by students who are finishing the course.

Na busca pelo fortalecimento do debate público sobre Ciência Tecnologia & Inovação (CT&I), pesquisadores têm abandonado o confinamento de seus laboratórios para se comunicar diretamente com a sociedade, fazendo uso de diferentes suportes midiáticos, dentre os quais incluem-se os espaços de enunciação escrita como as colunas de jornal e os livros de popularização científica. A Tese de doutorado discute as possibilidades de aproximação da Ciência com a sociedade por meio das mídias escritas e propõe uma reflexão crítica sobre o papel de um tipo de autor: o cientista engajado com a Comunicação Pública da Ciência. Mais especificamente, discute o papel de transcriação autoral de um grupo de escritores cientistas no espaço de popularização da CT&I, por meio da comunicação verbal escrita, a partir da análise do discurso consubstanciado em seus livros de ensaios curtos. Metodologicamente, a compreensão da narrativa de popularização e das cenas de enunciação busca suporte na linha francesa de Análise do Discurso. Os resultados obtidos evidenciam que os escritores cientistas se utilizam de alguns recursos epistêmicos e linguístico-literários recorrentes, o que permite conceber o empreendimento ensaístico desses autores em termos de dois modelos estilísticos distintos, mas complementares: o racional e o sensível. A Tese sugere que a composição narrativa textual apoia-se em esquemas de pensamento peculiares, identificados como Refuta/Repara (preponderante no modelo racional) e Conecta/Cria (preponderante no modelo sensível). Demonstra, ainda, que a constituição do gênero de ensaios curtos requer um duplo exercício criativo dos autores: posicionar-se enquanto cientista a respeito de um tema de interesse público e fazê-lo por meio da construção de uma narrativa transcriadora. / In an attempt to empower the public debate about Science, Technology and Innovation (ST&I), researchers are breaking the walls of their laboratories in order to communicate more directly with society through a variety of media, including written spaces of enunciation such as newspaper\'s columns and books of science popularization. The Thesis discusses the possibilities offered by written media to bridge the gap between science and society, and provides a critical analysis about the role of a particular kind of author: the scientist engaged with the Public Communication of Science. Particularly, it discusses the authorial transcreation effort conducted by a group of science writers, looking at their discourse in some popular short essays books. Methodologically, the understanding of both the narrative and the enunciation scenes draws on studies of the French school of Discourse Analysis. Results show that science writers tend to use, systematically, some epistemic and linguistic-literary resources, suggesting that their essayistic enterprise can be interpreted in terms of two distinct but complementary models: the rational and the sentient. The Thesis provides evidence that the authors\' textual narrative composition brings together peculiar ways of thinking, identified as Refute/Repair (predominant in the rational model), and Connect/Create (predominant in the sentient model). It also demonstrates that the constitution of the genre of short essays requires, from science writers, a double creative move: as scientist, to take position about issues of public interest, and to do it by means of a transcreative narrative.

L’importance du religieux au siècle des Lumières n’est plus à démontrer, tant dans sa dimension historique que philosophique ou artistique. Mais il s’agit de savoir s’il existe une pensée du religieux au XVIII° siècle, i.e. des modes spécifiques de peser des sens qui ont à voir avec l’invisible, le surnaturel ou le divin. Plutôt qu’une idée en particulier, idée de bonheur, de nature, d’énergie ou d’inquiétude, nous étudions un rapport, une relation articulée entre l’homme et le symbolisable: comment une société donnée mesure ce rapport au surnaturel, et à travers quels médias. L’enquête privilégie la littérature d’idées, la production d’une pensée qui n’adhère jamais ni à l’identité ni au concept, mais qui est plutôt écart et mouvement, et qui par cela même peut s’aventurer sur des terra incognita ; elle privilégie aussi la peinture d’histoire, le genre où l’iconographie est par excellence cosa mentale, manifestation visuelle des méditations d’une pensée. Les analyses sémiostylistiques des œuvres sont orientées par deux pôles, l’intertextualité biblique et la praxis socio-théologique de la Querelle des refus de sacrements. Elles permettent de saisir les mutations du paradigme biblique, de la pensée rationaliste et de l’esthétique mimétique tout en mettant au jour les obstacles épistémologiques, les points de résistance, les skandalon. La pensée du religieux au XVIII° siècle, entre audace et effroi, apparait marquée par l’expérience et l’ethos, une esthétique du témoin qui doit beaucoup à la pensée janséniste du témoignage, ainsi qu’une remise en cause de la pensée rationaliste au profit d’une nouvelle philosophie du langage / The importance of Religion in the Age of the Enlightenment is no longer to be proven, whether it be historically, philosophically ar artistically. The question is to make out if there exists a way of thinking Religion in the XVIIIth century, i.e. specific modes of weighing meanings which are related to the invisible, the supernatural or the divine. Rather than one idea in particular (happiness, nature, energy, anxiety), we are studying a connection, an articulate relation between man and what can be symbolized : how a given society assesses this connection to the supernatural, and through wich media. Our investigation favours essays, the production of a thinking which never adheres to the identity or the concept, but which is rather a swerve, a movement, which allows it to explore terra incognita ; the investigation also favours history painting, the genre in which iconography is by essence cosa mentale, a visual manifestation of the mediations of a thinking. The semiostylistical analysis of the works are orientated by two poles, the biblical intertextuality and the socio-theological praxis of the quarrel over the refusal of sacraments. These analysis allow to grasp the mutations of the biblical paradigm, the rationalist thinking and mimetic aesthetics while they make light on the epistemological obstacles, the resistance points, the skandalon. Thinking Religion in the XVIIIth century, between audacity and dismay, appears marked by the jansenist thinking of testimony, as well as a questionning of rationalist thinking in favour of a new philosophy of language

«L’essai de soi », en tant que méthode littéraire, crée dans l’œuvre de Woolf, Les Vagues, une nouvelle façon de faire littérature, ainsi qu’une nouvelle pensée philosophique. À fin de comprendre comment l’essai exerce une influence sur le travail de Woolf, J’ai analysé Les Essais de Michel de Montaigne, comme une méthode, comme l’exegium, dans ses multiples connotations ainsi que comme processus qui donne naissance à l’essai en tant que genre littéraire, dans son acception moderne. À travers « l’essai de soi » Montaigne et Woolf élaborent leurs propres autoportraits avec des mots. Pour une meilleure compréhension de ce processus j’ai établi des échos avec des philosophes contemporains et avec l’analyse des spécialistes. Pour une meilleure compréhension de « l’essai de soi » par rapport au travail de Woolf, je propose la définition des principes qui définissent la méthode de Montaigne. Ces principes ont été développés comme des axes de « l’essai de soi » sa définition et son interaction à chaque moment de son écriture. Dans le sens d’un « jeu d’abymes », j’ai visé le centre d’un entrecroisement d’hommages. Celui que Montaigne rend à Etienne de la Boétie, et la relation littéraire que Woolf établit avec Montaigne. Les deux auteurs développent son écriture comme une sorte d’autobiographie, mais ils vont au-delà de ce genre, par le registre du passage du temps et les transformations qui s’opèrent au moment de l’écriture. Les personnages de Woolf sont construits à partir de la variété de multiplicités que chacun en soi, celle que les autres et le regard des autres lui apportent. Les Vagues est une radiographie de l’esprit humain qui est au même temps approche philosophique, l’écriture suit ce que Montaigne décrit comme une forme elliptique de création. Les deux auteurs se basent sur l’expérience humaine, celle qui est commune à tous, là au chacun se rencontre avec l’autre. À travers ce processus, Woolf traduit la philosophie de Montaigne en style narratif. / This work deals on how the “essai de soi” as literary method creates in Virginia Woolf’s work in particular in The Waves, not only a new form of writing in the literary sense but also a new form of thinking. For being able to understand how the essay is such an important incidence in the cited work of Virginia Woolf, I looked into The Essays by Michel de Montaigne, not only to analyze him as a philosopher with a specific esthetics and ethics but furthermore, as a method, as exegium in its multiple connotations and as a procedure that allowed the essay to be born as a literary form. By using the “essai de soi” Montaigne and Woolf make their self-portraits in words. For the comprehension of the procedure I established an echo with contemporary philosophers and the specialist analysis of self portrait work. For a better comprehension of the “essai de soi” that allows a latter approach to Woolf´s work. I propose the definition of specific principles in Montaigne´s method. They will be developed in separate ways as axes of the “essai de soi” with the characteristic and parallel interactions in each moment of his writing. In a sort of “jeu d’abîmes” I gaze into a cross homage. That of Montaigne to Etienne de La Boétie and the literary relation that Woolf establishes with Montaigne. Both authors use their writing as a form of autobiography but go beyond that by registering the daily transformation of the present. In Woolf´s characters, she uses a multiplicity of biographies of the same person, seen by different people in which she finds a source to build the others in her own mirror. The Waves is a radiography of the human spirit used as a philosophical subject, her writing has what Montaigne describes as an elliptical form of creation. Both authors dwell on the human experience, that is common to us all, that which communicates and identifies itself in the other. By doing so Woolf allows herself to translate Montaigne’s philosophy in a narrative style.

To date, the Latin American essay remains little studied, certainly compared to other literary genres such as the novel, poetry and theater. This thesis examines prevailing theorists' conceptions of the essay and its historical development in Latin America. Employing the notions of cultural identity and difference, which have long been central to Latin American critical thought, this study distances the development of the essay in Latin America from Spanish colonial writings of the sixteenth century. In its place, this study proposes an innovative classification scheme that incorporates cultural codes as its main criteria in order to provide a more equitable treatment of essays from areas that have traditionally been marginalized in standard chronologically based classification schemes. Some of the paradigms used in this study to defend the integrity and specificity of the Latin American essay and culture are Inca Garcilaso de la Vega's affirmation of the values of the continent's indigenous pre-columbian heritage, Domingo Faustino Sarmiento's discursive reinvention of South America, and Jose Marti's notion of hibridez—a cultural and racial complex mixture rooted in the region's history—as an affirmation of a continental Latin American cultural identity. This thesis demonstrates that since Latin American essays diverge thematically from colonialist discourse, studies of the origins of the Latin American essay do not have to perpetuate the colonialist legacy. / Arts, Faculty of / French, Hispanic, and Italian Studies, Department of / Graduate

This essay aims to examine texts written by students in upper secondary school year 10 to see which conjunctions and linking words students at that level use, the normalized frequency as well as how they are used. For the investigation, a corpus, the Swedish Learner English Corpus (SLEC), was searched using AntConc, a corpus analysis toolkit for concordancing and text analysis. The investigated and compared groups are vocational and academic students, girls and boys, all studying the English 5 course, and no one speaking English as their native language. The hypotheses were that academic students, due to higher motivation, would use a higher normalized frequency of internal conjunctive relations which create text cohesion compared to the vocational students, and also that girls would use a higher normalized frequency of the same type of conjunctive relations than boys due to better results in general. The results were as predicted that the students enrolled in the academic programs do use a higher frequency of conjunctive relations of the internal kind than students in the vocational programs, apart from the temporal category, and that the girls use a higher frequency of conjunctive relations of the internal kind, than the boys within all functions except the temporal.

Der vorliegende Beitrag präsentiert die Ergebnisse einer Analyse von Kinderaufsätzen, die 10- bis 12-Jährige über ihre Lieblingsfilme verfasst haben. Der Schwerpunkt der Analyse liegt auf einer Genderperspektive: Welche Identifikationsfiguren, Themen und Interessen von Mädchen und Buben bilden sich in den Aufsätzen ab? Wie gehen die Kinder mit Geschlechterstereotypen um? Die Ergebnisse zeigen ein hohes Maß an Facettenreichtum und Individualität in den Aufsätzen – über die Geschlechtergruppen hinweg. Manche Tendenzen und Muster zeichnen sich in der einen Geschlechtergruppe stärker ab als in der anderen, augenfällige Unterschiede liegen mit wenigen Ausnahmen im untersuchten Sample aber nicht vor. Auch auf Geschlechterstereotype greifen die Kinder beim Schreiben nur selten zurück.

[pt] A tese tem como objetivo apresentar a antropofagia filosófica de Oswald de Andrade, com base em seus ensaios, artigos e teses escritas entre os anos de 1945 e 1954. Durante esta década, o autor desenvolveu um conjunto de reflexões no qual confronta os diversos aspectos de duas inclinações psicoculturais da espécie: o matriarcado e o patriarcado. Esta pesquisa pretende introduzir o leitor nos conceitos principais desta teoria. A tese também examina o estilo singular dos ensaios, debatendo como o autor lida com a oposição entre os campos discursivos da interpretação e da criação (teorias do conhecimento e ficção), e produz uma revisão heterodoxa de eventos e idéias tradicionais da história ocidental. / [en] The thesis aims to present Oswald de Andrade s philosophical anthropophagy, based on his essays, articles and thesis written between the years of 1945 and 1954. During this decade, the author developed a series of reflections in which confronts the various aspects of two psychocultural inclinations of the species: the matriarchy and the patriarchy. This research intends to introduce the reader into the main concepts of this theory. The thesis also examines the singular style of the essays, discussing how the author copes with the opposition between the discursive fields of interpretation and creation (theories of knowledge and fiction), and produces a heterodox review of traditional events and ideas of Western History.

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Book review of the collection titled ´East African literature: Essays on Written and Oral Tradition´ edited by J.K.S. Makokha, Egara Kabaji and Dominica Dipio