Cette étude montre comment la création d’un Mécanisme de règlement des différends, dont la juridiction est obligatoire pour régler les litiges entre les Membres de l’Organisation mondiale du commerce (OMC), participe au développement du droit international, tant sur le plan normatif qu’institutionnel. Les organes du Mécanisme jouent un rôle crucial dans la centralisation de l’application du droit international des échanges du fait de leur place au sein de la structure de l’OMC, et en raison des compétences juridictionnelles qu’ils exercent. Toutefois, l’action unilatérale des Membres de l’Organisation reste déterminante pour le bon fonctionnement de ce Mécanisme. La saisine de l’Organe de règlement des différends (ORD) sur requête unilatérale, de même que la mise en oeuvre de contre-mesures en cas d’inexécution des décisions de l’ORD, en sont les meilleures preuves. En outre, les rapports des groupes spéciaux (GS) et de l’Organe d’appel (OA) incorporés à ces décisions constituent un droit dérivé jurisprudentiel d’une importance toujours croissante. Enfin, le Mécanisme est au service d’une institution internationale qui n’est pas close sur elle-même. En effet, les organes du Mécanisme interprètent les traités de l’OMC conformément aux règles du droit international coutumier. Et, la production juridique de ces organes est un facteur de modification des normes des ordres juridiques des Membres de l’Organisation, ainsi que des Accords commerciaux régionaux (ACR) auxquels les Membres peuvent être parties. / Whatever the future of the WTO may be, the Dispute Settlement Mechanism (DSM) as an intergovernmental dispute settlement system is a key institution for the evolution of International Law. Firstly, its compulsory jurisdiction contributes to the structural development of the international legal system by ensuring the centralization of the WTO Law application and a multilateral control on the Member States behaviours. Yet, factors of the DSM success, such as the panel establishment by a Member unilateral request, or such as the complainant Member countermeasures used to make a defender Member comply with the recommendations and rulings of the Dispute Settlement Body(DSB), underline the fact that States remain the major actors of the International legal system.Secondly, the case-law of the DSM (more than 450 cases) is considerable compared to any othercase-law of an inter-governmental litigation settlement organ. At last, the panels and the AppelateBody (AB) apply in their reports the customary international rules to interpret WTO treaties and thus the Understanding on Rules and Procedures governing the Settlement of Disputes (DSU).Accordingly, the DSB decisions shall have a great impact on the whole normative development of the international legal system. And eventually, DSB decisions may affect the undergoing change ofthe Members domestic legal systems, and the Regional Trade Agreements (RTA).

The aim of this thesis is to find out how developing countries are involved into the global economy, what are the differences in engagement of different regions, and how international organizations (in particular IMF, WB, WTO and UNCTAD) influence the position of developing countries. The thesis also aims to evaluate conditions and possible developmental strategies, as well as causes of unsuccessful engagement. Further, the critical view on functioning of international organizations is brought. The thesis is divided into two parts; each of them consists of four chapters. The first part as a whole deals with the differentiation among developing countries and ways they are involved into the world economy. The second part shows the role of international institutions in the process of integration of developing countries.

A comunidade internacional tem se convencido sobre a seriedade da mudança climática e a necessidade de respostas urgentes para combatê-la. No entanto, a ausência de um regime universal com metas para os principais poluidores faz com que cada país adote ações individuais de maneira descoordenada. Esse descompasso levanta preocupações sobre possíveis impactos para a competitividade e a eficácia dos esforços dos países com políticas climáticas mais ambiciosas. Com o escopo de neutralizar tais ameaças, desponta a alternativa de adoção de ajustes de carbono na fronteira para equalizar os encargos ambientais entre a indústria doméstica e as importações. Nesse contexto, a presente tese defende a criação de disciplinas internacionais para orientar o uso de ajustes de carbono em sintonia com os valores do livre comércio e da preservação do clima. Recomenda-se que as negociações internacionais sejam lideradas pelas Nações Unidas, na moldura do regime climático, porém, em estreito diálogo e cooperação com a Organização Mundial do Comércio (OMC). A partir da análise de possíveis cenários, o trabalho expressa preferência por disciplinas multilaterais. Reconhece-se, contudo, méritos em arranjos intermediários, como os instrumentos setoriais. Por fim, indica-se um roteiro sobre os principais aspectos da aplicação dos ajustes de carbono que mereceriam apreciação em plano internacional. / The international community has acknowledged the need for urgent responses to address climate change. However, in the absence of a global agreement setting binding targets for all major polluters, countries pursue individual actions in an uncoordinated fashion. Such a situation raises concerns on competitiveness impacts and on the environmental effectiveness of climate policies of most countries, especially those leading the way. As a solution to level the playing field vis-à-vis international competitors, countries evaluate the use of border carbon adjustments. Against this background, this analysis supports the design of international disciplines to guide the use of border carbon adjustments in line with the goals of free trade and climate protection. It argues that the United Nations should lead those negotiations in the framework of the climate regime, in close dialogue and cooperation with the World Trade Organization (WTO). Based on an analysis of multiple scenarios, this essay favours the adoption of multilateral disciplines. It recognizes, however, advantages in alternative approaches such as sectorial agreements. Finally, it proposes a roadmap on key aspects concerning the use of border carbon adjustments that merit consideration in the international arena.

Dans cette thèse, nous étudions l'effet de la répartition inégale des ressources naturelles entre les pays sur trois aspects principaux. Dans le premier chapitre, nous examinons empiriquement les effets asymétriques potentiels de l'adhésion à l'Organisation Mondiale du Commerce (OMC) entre les membres, en nous concentrant spécifiquement sur les pays en développement. Les résultats suggèrent que l'adhésion à l'OMC a contribué à l'augmentation des exportations de tous les pays, à l'exception des pays non-émergents riches en ressources. En revanche, les pays émergents riches en ressources sont les plus grands bénéficiaires de l'accession à l'OMC. Dans le deuxième chapitre, nous explorons empiriquement l'impact de la dotation en ressources naturelles sur les gains de six Accords Commerciaux Régionaux (ACR) entre les membres à travers trois axes : la complémentarité entre les pays, la diversification des pays riches en ressources ainsi que la création et le détournement des échanges. Nous concluons que la complémentarité entre les pays riches et les pays pauvres en ressources a été atteinte dans les accords de l’ECOWAS, du SADC et du CIS. Les résultats indiquent également que, dans tous les ACR, les pays riches en ressources ont accru leurs exportations hors secteurs des ressources naturelles et diversifié ainsi leurs structures d'exportation, en particulier avec les partenaires régionaux. En outre, dans la plupart des ACR, les pays pauvres ont accru leurs exportations vers leurs partenaires riches en ressources, tandis que ces derniers souffrent du détournement des échanges en termes d'importations. Dans le dernier chapitre, nous étudions l'impact de la dotation en ressources naturelles sur le processus de convergence entre les pays du PAFTA. Premièrement, les résultats démontrent que la sigma-convergence n'était observable qu'entre 1970 et 1990 dans les pays du PAFTA. De plus, l’estimation révèle que les ressources naturelles sont l'un des principaux déterminants de la convergence conditionnelle au sein du PAFTA. Par conséquent, l'asymétrie entre les pays en termes de dotation en ressources naturelles n'a pas empêché la convergence dans le PAFTA. L'analyse de la convergence des clubs a identifié trois principaux clubs parmi les pays du PAFTA. En outre, les facteurs qui ont déterminé la formation des clubs sont les ressources naturelles, la qualité des institutions et l'investissement. Par ailleurs, une abondance de ressources naturelles n'est pas suffisante pour être le meilleur club, mais doit être accompagnée d'institutions de qualité. / In this thesis, we examine the effect of the unequal distribution of natural resources between countries on three main aspects. In chapter one, we empirically examine potential asymmetric effects of the accession of the World Trade Organization (WTO) across members, focusing specifically on the developing countries. The results suggest that membership in the WTO contributed to greater exports for all countries, except for non-emerging resource-rich countries. In contrast, emerging resource-rich countries are the greatest beneficiaries from the accession of the WTO. In chapter two, we empirically explore the impact of natural resource endowments on the gains of six Regional Trade Agreements (RTA) across members through three axes: complementarity between countries, diversification of resource-rich countries, and trade creation and diversion. We conclude that the complementarity between resource-rich and resource-poor countries has been achieved in the ECOWAS, SADC and CIS agreements. The results also indicate that in all RTAs, the resource-rich countries increased exports in non-natural resource sectors and thereby diversified their export structures, especially with regional partners. Moreover, in most RTAs, poor countries boosted their exports to resources-rich partners, while resource-rich countries suffer from trade diversion in terms of imports. In the last chapter, we study the impact of natural resource endowments on the process of convergence among PAFTA countries. First, the results demonstrate that sigma-convergence was only observable between 1970-1990 among PAFTA countries. The estimation reveals that natural resources are one of the main determinants of conditional convergence within PAFTA. Therefore, the asymmetry between countries in terms of natural resource endowment did not impede the convergence in PAFTA. Club convergence analysis identify three main clubs among PAFTA countries. In addition, the factors that determined clubs’ formation are natural resources, quality of institutions, and investment. Further, an abundance of natural resources is alone not enough to be the best club, but must be accompanied by high-quality institutions.

Cette thèse propose une analyse du développement économique à partir du concept de facteur humain qui apparaît en économie institutionnelle à travers les institutions informelles. Ces dernières sont responsables du caractère spécifique de chaque structure institutionnelle nationale qui forme le cadre incitatif de l'économie. Composée de règles formelles et informelles, la structure institutionnelle représente un ensemble évolutif. L'objectif élargi de cette recherche est donc de comprendre l'évolution et le changement des structures institutionnelles en étudiant particulièrement l'impact international sur ce processus. L'objectif spécifique de ce travail est d'appliquer l'approche développée au cas de la Russie afin de contribuer à une meilleure compréhension de la structure institutionnelle russe actuelle, de son efficacité pour le développement économique du pays et de l'impact de l'ouverture économique sur son changement, et notamment sur le facteur humain russe. Avec l'adhésion de la Russie en 2012 à l'Organisation Mondiale du Commerce cette question est d'intérêt particulier car le pays s'ouvre aux nouveaux attributs de la mondialisation. En mobilisant le cadre théorique croisé entre l'économie institutionnelle, l'économie de développement et l'économie internationale, cette étude nous conduit à présenter la mondialisation en tant que processus institutionnel qui en généralisant les institutions formelles de l'économie de marché et de la démocratie à l'échelle planétaire, a ignoré le rôle du facteur humain local. Cela explique la différence des performances économiques des pays qui ont adopté les mêmes cadres organisationnels. En revanche, la prise en considération du facteur humain dans l'analyse économique permet de développer la vision plus optimiste de la mondialisation. En facilitant le contact direct entre les représentants des structures institutionnelles différentes, elle est capable de stimuler l'évolution des normes de comportement improductif vers les valeurs sociales incitant les actions productives. En appliquant ce constat à l'analyse de la structure institutionnelle russe qui a vu diverger ses institutions formelles et informelles en résultat des réformes de la transition des années 1990, il est possible de conclure que l'ouverture économique de ce pays dans les conditions actuelles favorisera le changement de son facteur humain. Compte tenu de l'incohérence entre le cadre formel et les institutions informelles russes, l'évolution de ces dernières contribuera à l'instauration de l'ordre social formel et impersonnel. / This PhD dissertation analyzes the economic development from the concept of human factor which appears in the Institutional Economics trough the informal institutions. These institutions are responsible for the specific character of each national institutional structure which forms the incentive system of an economy. An institutional framework as a composite of formal rules and informal institutions is an evolutionary set. The wider objective of this thesis is to understand the evolution and change of institutional structures by studying in particular the international impact on this process. The specific objective of this research work is to apply the developed approach to the Russian case in order to better understand the actual Russian institutional structure, its effectiveness for the economic development of the country and the impact of the economic openness on the institutional change, in particular on the Russian human factor. This impact is a highly topical question for Russia because of its greater economic openness due to its accession to the World Trade Organization completed in 2012. Within the theoretical framework formed by Institutional Economics, Development Economics and International Economics, this research leads us to present the globalization as an institutional process which generalized formal institutions of the market economy and the democracy on the global scale but which ignored the role of the local human factor. It explains the differences of the economic performance in the countries who adopted the same formal framework. In contrast, taking into account the role of the human factor in the economic development allows to develop more optimistic views of globalization. By facilitating the direct contact between the representatives of the different institutional structures, the globalization can stimulate the evolution of social norms of unproductive behavior to the social values inciting productive actions. Applying this to the Russian framework which formal and informal institutions became strongly divergent in result of the transition reforms of 1990s, it is possible to conclude that the economic openness of this country in the actual situation will favor the change of its human factor. Considering the incoherence between Russian actual formal framework and Russian informal institutions, the evolution of the last will contribute to establish former and impersonal social order.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-26T20:30:19Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Wagner de Macedo Parente Filho.pdf: 1473853 bytes, checksum: b48dae48a1370f76235828467fb259a0 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010-04-30 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / The antidumping is one of the most used mechanisms by members of the World Trade Organization (WTO), and provide by international agreements within the same organization, to impede the access of foreign products in domestic market. Despite a relative uniformity in the implementation of these measures due the fact that it derives from the internalization of the Antidumping Agreement there is still a wide discretion in how WTO members apply such measure, especially the national interest. Thus, developing countries could use the antidumping with a different logic from used in developed countries; not to meet the pressures of domestic industry which was affected by the trade liberalization process, but as part of broader public policies that seek the development of the nation as a whole. In this sense, it is clear that at least two countries that preach free trade England and United States were used aggressive interventionist policies to achieve their current level of development, which cannot be used by today s developing countries under international agreements. In a similar way, it seems essential that developing countries use all mechanisms provided by international agreements in order to carry on public policies, one of them is the antidumping. This use of antidumping measures, at least in Brazil, is consistent with the constitutional option in Brazil; represents low risk to retaliate directly or challenge in WTO Dispute Settlement; can offer more credibility to public policies; provides a more solid economic rationale; and facilitates the judicial control of the action / As medidas antidumping são um dos mecanismos mais utilizados pelos membros da Organização Mundial do Comércio (OMC) e previstos nos acordos internacionais no âmbito da mesma Organização, para conter a entrada de produtos estrangeiros no mercado interno. Apesar de haver uma relativa uniformidade quanto à aplicação das referidas medidas por derivarem da internalização do Acordo Antidumping ainda existe uma grande discricionariedade na forma como os membros da OMC fazem uso das mesmas, em especial quanto ao interesse nacional. Dessa forma, países em desenvolvimento poderiam utilizar o antidumping com uma lógica diferente da que é empregada em países desenvolvidos; não para satisfazer as pressões da indústria doméstica que foi afetada pelo processo de liberalização comercial, mas como parte de políticas públicas mais amplas, que busquem o desenvolvimento da nação como um todo. Nesse sentido, é notório que pelo menos os dois países que mais pregam o liberalismo comercial Inglaterra e Estados Unidos se utilizaram de políticas intervencionistas agressivas para alcançarem o seu atual nível de desenvolvimento, as quais não podem ser utilizadas pelos países em desenvolvimento de hoje, por força dos acordos internacionais. Do mesmo modo, parece fundamental que os países em desenvolvimento façam uso de todos os mecanismos previstos nos acordos internacionais para a efetivação de políticas públicas eficientes, sendo um dos principais o antidumping. Essa utilização das medidas antidumping, pelo menos no Brasil, é coerente com a opção constitucional brasileira; representa pouca possibilidade de retaliação direta ou contestação no Órgão de Solução de Controvérsias da OMC; pode oferecer mais credibilidade às políticas públicas; possibilita uma ratio econômica mais sólida; e facilita o controle jurisdicional das medidas

Made available in DSpace on 2016-06-24T04:09:18Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Folha de Rosto.pdf: 1353106 bytes, checksum: 418e6e605676f643e0d1b2afc719794e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2006-04-10 / With the development of the international trade, the quarrels became constant around the forms of regulation and the solution of conflicts between the nations, in this context appears the World Trade Organization (WTO). Before entering the study of the OMC and of its methods of solution of conflicts, it is necessary investigate the history of the development of the international trade before and after the Second World War I, and the multilateral organisms with emphasis in the General Agreement of Commerce and Tariffs (GATT). The ways of solution of international conflicts are object of the study, as much its historical part, as the current one, having as main focus the Dispute Settlement Body (DSB) of the WTO. As much in the historical part as in the part of the methods of international solution of conflicts, the participation of the developing countries is studied. And, is made studies of cases of the performance of the developing countries in some demands proposal before the DSB. Of this form, the work demonstrated as it was the participation of the developing countries in the development of the international trade and in the DSB of WTO / Com o desenvolvimento do comércio mundial, às discussões em torno das formas de regulação do mesmo e da solução de conflitos entre as nações tornou-se uma constante, neste contexto surge a Organização Mundial do Comércio (OMC) Antes de ingressar no estudo da OMC, propriamente dito, e de seus métodos de solução de conflitos, é necessário perquirir a história do desenvolvimento do comércio internacional antes e após a Segunda Guerra Mundial, e os organismos multilaterais criados, com ênfase no Acordo Geral de Comércio e Tarifas (GATT). Os meios de solução de conflitos internacionais são objeto do estudo, tanto sua parte histórica, como a atual, tendo como foco principal o Órgão de Solução de Conflitos (OSC) da OMC. Tanto na parte histórica como na parte dos métodos de solução de conflitos internacional, a participação dos países em desenvolvimento (PED) é objeto de análise. E, são feitos estudos de casos da atuação dos países em desenvolvimento em algumas demandas proposta perante o OSC. Desta forma, o trabalho demonstrou como foi a participação dos PED no desenvolvimento do comércio internacional e no OSC da OMC

O presente trabalho busca analisar a evolução da discussão dogmática sobre a relação entre direito interno e direito internacional na jurisprudência do Supremo Tribunal Federal. A pesquisa dedica especial atenção a três casos específicos, julgados entre 2008 e 2010, que são representativos de uma nova fase no entendimento corte, em que o Supremo Tribunal Federal tratou de uma série de questões inéditas na sua jurisprudência. São eles a decisão, em 2008, sobre a prisão civil do depositário infiel, proibida pela Convenção Americana de Direitos Humanos; a ADPF no 101, de 2009, sobre a importação de pneus usados e remoldados, cuja regulamentação também foi objeto de decisões no âmbito do Mercosul e da OMC; e a ADPF no 153, de 2010, que discutiu a Lei da Anistia, também tratada na Corte Interamericana de Direitos Humanos. Mapeando as discussões dogmáticas nesses casos, busca-se identificar as implicações dos tratados internacionais e das decisões de tribunais internacionais para o ordenamento jurídico brasileiro, bem como as contradições e omissões de tais decisões. A análise do desenvolvimento da jurisprudência do Supremo Tribunal Federal considera as transformações ocorridas no direito internacional a partir do final da Segunda Guerra Mundial e as mudanças incorporadas às constituições brasileiras, e em especial a Constituição de 1988 e a sua Emenda no 45, de 2004. / This study seeks to analyze the evolution of the dogmatic debate on the relationship between domestic and international law in the Brazilian Supreme Courts case law. The research devotes special attention to three specific cases, decided between 2008 and 2010, which are representative of a new phase in the courts understanding, in which the Supreme Court has dealt with completely new issues. These cases are the following: the decision in 2008 on the civil imprisonment of an unfaithful trustee, prohibited by the American Convention on Human Rights; ADPF No. 101, from of 2009, on the import of used tires, which had also been the subject of decisions within Mercosur and WTO; and ADPF No 153, from 2010, which discussed the Brazilian Amnesty Act, also addressed by the Interamerican Court of Human Rights. By mapping dogmatic discussions of these cases, I seek to identify the implications of international treaties and decisions of international tribunals for the Brazilian legal system, as well as the contradictions and omissions of such decisions. The analysis of the development of the Supreme Courts case law considers the transformation occurring in international law since the end of World War II and the changes incorporated into the Brazilian constitutions, and in particular the Constitution of 1988 and its Amendment No 45 of 2004.

Magister Legum - LLM / The provisions of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT 1994) generally give favourable consideration to developing and least developed countries.1 Firstly, at the core of these provisions is the principle of special and differential treatment of these countries. As such developing countries are to meet their obligations under the WTO agreements as and when the special needs of their economies permit. The GATT 1994 provisions exempt least developed countries from participating in the obligations under the WTO agreements until such a time that they attain a reasonable level of development.Secondly, the Ministerial Meeting in Doha in November 2001 adopted a development agenda (that described capacity building activities as “core elements of the development dimension of the multilateral trading system”) and called for more co-ordinated delivery of trade related technical assistance and capacity building.2 In this regard, developed members of the WTO have committed to provide technical assistance to developing and least developed members in order to build their capacity to participate effectively under the WTO.The reality of the situation on the ground is that developing and least developed countries still face a lot of challenges which hinder their full participation and realization of the benefits under the multilateral trading system. It must be appreciated, at the same time that developing countries like China and India have been active and influential in the multilateral trading system, and additionally, their economies have and are experiencing overt growth. What lessons does Africa need to learn from China and India?This study examines the causes of the poor performance of Sub Saharan Africa’s developing and Least Developed Countries in the multilateral trading system. In this regard, examples are drawn from two countries, namely, Kenya and Zambia.Further, the study examines the initiatives the WTO provides to enhance the trade capacity of its developing and least developed members. In addition, the study examines African trade capacity building initiatives such the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) and the African Capacity Building Foundation (ACBF) Initiatives, as well as the African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) Initiative in order to establish how these initiatives can assist in enhancing the trade capacity of developing and least developed countries.The study further examines the role of regional trade integration in enhancing the trade capacity building of developing and least developed countries. In this case, examples are drawn from the Southern Africa Development Community (SADC) and the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa-Developing Countries (COMESA). In this regard, the study concludes that fully-fledged regional integration has the potential to promote economic growth and industrial development in Africa.The study also demonstrates the importance of the participation of governments and the private sector in improving a country’s participation in the multilateral trading system. This study particularly takes key interest in the crucial role of the public-private partnerships in enhancing competitive forces and competitiveness necessary to maximize trade opportunities, which in turn produces economic development.It is observed and concluded in this study that sustainably financed technical assistance and capacity building programmes have important roles to play in so far as integration of Sub Saharan Africa into the global trading system is concerned; and that developing countries in general and LDCs in particular are to be provided with enhanced Trade-Related Technical Assistance (TRTA) and capacity building to increase their effective participation in the negotiations, to facilitate their implementation of GATT/WTO rules and to enable them adjust and diversify their economies.

工業革命後傳統經濟發展模式成功地使經濟活動與經濟成長成為世界上大多數國家的政治議題，但大量提高產業生產的結果使得地球上的資源消耗與廢棄物製造量所造成的生態耗損速度遠超過自然再生速度。另一方面，由於「科技」與「貿易」的影響，生物新陳代謝加諸於人類的負荷將透過產業的新陳代謝更形擴大，在高度工業化國家物質消費程度與形式更受到消費主義的鼓舞，形成毫無節制的消費與浪費。近年來台灣地區加入世界貿易組織（World Trade Organization， WTO）引起廣泛的環境與貿易議題的討論，其中農業議題尤為顯著，究竟台灣地區加入WTO後之農地轉用政策是否可使土地資源利用達到永續經營之目標，引發本研究之研究動機。 本研究以生態足跡分析及貿易與永續發展相關理念為基礎，以1991到1996年台灣地區的農業產業做為研究的時空範圍，進行台灣地區耕地與牧草地生態足跡之實證計算並加以分析。在理論方面，首先就永續性之整體面向及各別領域面向推論出生態經濟學之定義符合整體面向之強永續性觀念；其次重新思考人類容受力定義，非以支持最大人口數（單位：人╱土地）而是轉向計算某一族群在持續基礎下生產所有消費物質及消化所有廢棄物所需的土地及水域面積（單位：土地╱人）之生態足跡（ecological footprint）觀念；在貿易與永續發展理念推論部份，則以IISD（1994、1995）、ICTSD（1995）及Cosbey（1998）等之相關研究作為理論基礎；最後，結合生態足跡、貿易及永續發展三者之理論。 在實證方面，本研究修正國內外多項研究後，重新定義符合台灣地區之生態足跡計算項目，並計算台灣地區1991到1996年農業（耕地與牧草地）之生態足跡，得知台灣地區農業消費中佔耕地生態足跡比例較重的項目分別為稻米、其他作物、豆類、種子油及進出口紗布、紡織製成品、成衣及服飾品及鞋類等五項，而影響台灣地區農業之牧草地生態足跡面積較大的因子包括羊毛及皮革、獸皮兩項；將這些項目與行政院農委會WTO農業因應對策項目對照後，發現影響最大的兩項分別為稻米及農園特產之豆類；因此本研究就稻米與豆類兩項產業加入WTO前後對台灣地區生態足跡、生態標竿、及生態赤字之影響進行進一步研究，並分析該兩項產業完全轉用為非農業使用與完全無轉用對生態足跡之影響，以評估該兩項產業加入WTO是否為一永續性策略。 本研究的研究結果發現，不論是稻米或豆類，其生態足跡與耕地生態標竿間的差距在無論有無造成農地轉用的情形下，都對該值影響不大，亦即不因加入WTO而有所改變。就生態足跡的理念觀之，若加入WTO使進口量增加的結果造成產業生產力提昇、進口產業以內銷為主、對國內生產量影響程度愈大，相對生態足跡面積降低程度愈大者及農地轉用為同類別使用等這四種影響的情形之下，則台灣地區加入WTO可視為永續性策略。 / After the Industrial Revolution, traditional economic development models have successfully made economic activities and economic growth a political issue for most countries around the world. However, with the greatly enhanced industrial productivity has come instensified uses of the resources of the earth, and the ecological depletion rate resulting from solid waste volumes has far exceeded nature's regenerative capacities. On the other hand, due to the influence of technology and trade, the natural biological metabolism, already carrying a human load, is being expanded and intensified by the industrial metabolism. In highly industrialized countries, the degree and form of material consumption has been inspired by consumerism, engendering virtually unlimited consumption and waste. In recent years, while Taiwan has been seeking to join the World Trade Organization (WTO), there have been pervasive discussions on the subject of trade and the environment. Among these, agricultural issues have been prevalent. Should Taiwan join the WTO, will the farmland transformation policy permit land resource usage to meet the objectives for sustainable development? This question is the motivation for this dissertation. This dissertation is based on the ecological footprint analysis, along with trade and sustainable development theories. The timeframe for reseach extends from 1991 to 1996, focussing on Taiwan's agricultural industry. Ecological footprint analyses were calculated based on factual evidence/data from Taiwan's arable land and pasture land. In terms of applied theories, first, considering both the comprehensive entirety as well as individual discrete segments, we conclude that the definitions of eco-economics are in agreement with the concept of the strong sustainability. Next, we reconsider the definition of human carrying capacity, not basing this concept on the support of a maximum population base (Unit: per capita/ha), but rather on the calculation of the land and water needed by a certain group (Unit: ha/per capita), existing on a continuous base, to effectively produce all consumer materials and absorb all solid waste. In respect to trade and sustainable development theories, we use related studies such as IISD（1994、1995）, ICTSD（1995）, and Cosbey（1998） to be our theoretical base. Finally, we combine the three theoretical constructs, namely the concept of the ecological footprint, trade, and sustainable development. In carrying out our research on factual evidence/data, this dissertation modifies research previously conducted by a number of researchers. We redefine the calculation parameters for Taiwan's ecological footprint, finely calculating the ecological footprint for the agriculture industry (arable land and pasture land) for Taiwan in the 1991 to 1996 period. We learn that in terms of agricultural usage and consumption in Taiwan, the five key items with the largest shares of the arable land footprint are: rice, other cereals, pulses, seed oils, and import/export textile yarn, fabrics, articles of apparel and clothing accessories, footwear. Factors demonstrating the greatest influence on Taiwan's pasture land ecological footprint are: wool and leather, and animal hides. When we compare these findings with policies of the Council of Agriculture for entering into the WTO, we confirm that rice and pulses are indeed the two items of greatest importance. Therefore, this dissertation will focus on the rice and pulses industry before and after entering into the WTO, and on their influence on Taiwan's ecological footprint, ecological benchmark, and ecological deficit. We will also analyze possible consequences should these two industries be transformed to non-agricultural uses, or, if no such changes are instituted, what the consequences will be for Taiwan's ecological footprint. Based on these findings, we will evaluate whether the allowance of entry of these two industries into the WTO is a sustainable strategy. Our research findings reveal that, whether or not we transform farmlands from the rice and pulses industries, there will be no significant impacts on the anticipated gap between the ecological footprint and the arable land ecological benchmark. This means there will be no significant change should there be entering into the WTO. Thus, from the perspective of ecological footprint analysis, if we join the WTO and the result is an increase in imports, this will enhance our industrial productivity; imported items will be fully consumed domestically; the greater the influence on domestic production volumes the greater the decrease in the ecological footprint area; and, farmlands will be transformed to non-agricultural uses. Because of the above four factors, it can be said that joining the WTO will probably be considered as a policy of sustainability. 第一章 緒論 1 第一節 研究背景 1 第二節 研究目的與內容 5 第三節 研究流程與問題限制 9 第二章 基本理念與文獻評析 13 第一節 永續性理念及知識性工具 13 第二節 永續發展評估工具－生態足跡分析 26 第三節 貿易與永續發展關係之研究 44 第四節 生態足跡的比較利益基礎 57 第五節 永續發展與WTO環境與貿易議題之探討 63 第三章 永續發展與WTO相關農業議題探討 69 第一節 台灣地區加入WTO各項農業議題之協定 69 第二節 台灣地區加入WTO各項農業議題之對策 84 第三節 台灣地區加入WTO農業議題對永續發展之影響 94 第四章 台灣地區農業生態足跡分析實證研究 99 第一節 生態足跡分析架構之建立 99 第二節 台灣地區歷年農業生態足跡評估 109 第三節 台灣地區農業生態標竿之建立與生態足跡分析結果 118 第五章 台灣地區稻米及農園特產之生態足跡與WTO農業相關議題之探討.124 第一節 台灣地區農業生態足跡與WTO農業議題對應項目分析 124 第二節 台灣地區因應加入WTO農業議題對應項目與台灣地區稻米及農園特產生態足跡影響因子分析 130 第六章 加入WTO對台灣地區永續發展影響之探討 142 第一節 以生態足跡觀點解讀加入WTO是否為永續性策略 142 第二節 以貿易與永續發展原則檢視台灣地區加入WTO是否為永續性策略 146 第七章 結論與建議 149 第一節 結論 149 第二節 後續研究建議 154