Nowadays the environmental sustainability and the limitation of the energy consumption of buildings is of substantial importance in order to reduce greenhouse gases emissions and mitigate the consequences of climate change. Thermal energy storage (TES) allows to store thermal energy when available in order to use it when and where necessary. The use of insulating materials with TES capability may results in the compensation of energy absorption peaks caused by air conditioning or by space heating with a consequent reduction of energy consumption and related CO2 emissions. This work aims at the development and characterization of composite materials based on polymeric foams and containing a phase change material providing the TES capability. The production procedures were optimized in order to maximize the quality of the samples and the main properties of the resulting materials were then investigated. Different matrices were considered in this work: thermosetting, thermoplastic and elastomeric ones. As thermosetting matrix, a polyurethane foam was considered: this foam was filled, during the production process, with increasing amounts (from 10 to 40 wt%) of a microencapsulated PCM with a melting point of 24 °C. The addition of the PCM caused the disruption of the regular close cell morphology of the foams with a consequent increase of the thermal conductivity and a reduction of the mechanical properties. On the other hand, the addition of the PCM led to interesting TES properties, measured both through differential scanning calorimetry and infrared thermography (up to 54 J/g). Polyethylene was chosen as thermoplastic matrix and the technology of salt leaching was used to obtain foams without the use of chemical foaming agents. Foams containing different amounts (up to 56 wt%) of a microencapsulated PCM with a melting point of 24 °C were prepared. The addition of the PCM led to a decrease of the connectivity and porosity values of the prepared foams with a consequent decrease of the mechanical properties and increase of the thermal conductivity. Despite the rupture of a certain part of the PCM capsules due to the production process, good TES properties (up to 50 J/g) were measured. Elastomeric foams were prepared using an EPDM rubber as matrix and different foaming agents for the expansion process: foams obtained using two different commercial foaming agents were compared with foams obtained using the salt leaching technique. In the first case, a shape-stabilized PCM was added during the production process, while in the second one the foams were impregnated with a liquid PCM without the necessity of a shape stabilization. Salt leaching foams were able to retain higher PCM loads with respect to foams produced using commercial foaming agents and were therefore characterized by higher TES capability (up to 129 J/g). Infrared thermography tests highlighted that the time required to reach a reference temperature during heating/cooling cycles was three times longer for samples with a PCM amount of about 55 wt%. These foams evidenced a general decrease of the mechanical properties upon PCM addition. Moreover, a strong influence of the temperature on the mechanical behaviour of these foams was highlighted, with the PCM acting as softener above its melting point and as hardener below. In order to consider practical applications, elastomeric panels made of an ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM) rubber filled with a shape stabilized PCM and covered with a nitrile-butadiene rubber (NBR) envelope were prepared. It was possible to verify the absence of leakage, the uniform distribution of the PCM and the influence of temperature on the mechanical properties of the samples. From rheological tests it was also possible to observe the plasticizing effect of the PCM that hindered the vulcanization process of the EPDM/PCM compound. In the second part of this work larger samples were prepared and used for the internal insulation of wood boxes that were subjected to heating/cooling cycles, simulating thus real summer conditions in north Italy. The beneficial effect of the PCM resulted in a consistent reduction of the temperature peak with respect to a reference box insulated with elastomeric panels without PCM. Moreover, the fire behaviour of the produced samples was studied and the effect of the addition of different flame retardants was deeply investigated. The addition of a flame retardant based on ammonium polyphosphate and aluminium diethyl phosphinate as synergistic agents allowed a strong reduction of the peak of heat release rate measured through cone calorimeter tests, with a significant improvement of the fire behaviour. Fire tests allowed also to point out the significant role, in improving the fire performances of the samples, of the interactions between ammonium polyphosphate and the mineral fillers present in the EPDM/PCM compound (clay) and in the envelope (talc, kaolin and silica). A better comprehension of the combustion mechanisms and of the flame retardant efficacy was achieved through the analysis of the combustion residues. Finally, the specific enthalpy of the different systems was evaluated with respect to the cost of the raw materials used in the production stages in order to classify them on the basis of their melting enthalpy and on the economical aspects.

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A desirable feature of concentrated solar power (CSP) with integrated thermal energy storage (TES) unit is to provide electricity in a dispatchable manner during cloud transient and non-daylight hours. Latent heat thermal energy storage (LHTES) offers many advantages such as higher energy storage density, wider range of operating temperature and nearly isothermal heat transfer relative to sensible heat thermal energy storage (SHTES), which is the current standard for trough and tower CSP systems. Despite the advantages mentioned above, LHTES systems performance is often limited by low thermal conductivity of commonly used, low cost phase change materials (PCMs). Research and development of passive heat transfer devices, such as heat pipes (HPs) to enhance the heat transfer in the PCM has received considerable attention. Due to its high effective thermal conductivity, heat pipe can transport large amounts of heat with relatively small temperature difference. The objective of this research is to study the charging and discharging processes of heat pipe-assisted LHTES systems using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and experimental testing to develop a method for more efficient energy storage system design. The results revealed that the heat pipe network configurations and the quantities of heat pipes integrated in a thermal energy storage system have a profound effect on the thermal response of the system. The optimal placement of heat pipes in the system can significantly enhance the thermal performance. It was also found that the inclusion of natural convection heat transfer in the CFD simulation of the system is necessary to have a realistic prediction of a latent heat thermal storage system performance. In addition, the effects of geometrical features and quantity of fins attached to the HPs have been studied. / Mechanical Engineering

The balance of the supply of renewable energy sources with electricity demand will become increasingly difficult with further penetration of renewable energy sources. Traditionally, large stationary batteries have been used to store renewable energy in excess of electricity demand and dispatch the stored energy to meet future electricity demand. Cool thermal energy storage is a feasible renewable energy balancing solution that has economic and environmental advantages over utility scale stationary lead-acid batteries. Two technologies, ice harvesters and internal-melt ice-on-coil cool thermal energy storage, have the capability to store excess renewable energy and use the energy to displace electricity used for building cooling systems. When implemented by a utility, cool thermal energy storage can replace large utility scale batteries for renewable energy balancing in utility regions with high renewable energy penetration. The California Independent System Operator (CAISO) region and the Electric Reliability Council of Texas (ERCOT) are utility regions with large solar and wind resources, respectively, that can benefit from installation of cool thermal energy storage systems for renewable energy balancing. With proper scheduling of energy dispatched from cool thermal energy storage, these technologies can be effective in displacing peak power capacity for the region, in displacing traditional building cooling equipment, and in recovering renewable energy that would otherwise be curtailed. / Master of Science

Wind and solar technologies have experienced rapid market growth recently as a result of the growing interest for implementation of renewable energy. However, the intermittency of wind and solar power is a major obstacle to their broader use. The additional risks of unexpected interruptions and mismatch with demand have hindered the expansion of these two primary renewable resources. The goal of this research is to analyze an integrated energy system that includes a novel configuration of wind and solar coupled with two storage methods to make both wind and solar sources dispatchable during peak demand, thereby enabling their broader use. Named DSWiSS for Dispatchable Solar Wind Storage System, the proposed system utilizes compressed air energy storage (CAES) that is driven from wind energy and thermal storage supplied by concentrating solar thermal power in order to achieve this desired dispatchability. Although DSWiSS mimics the operation of a typical CAES facility, the replacement of energy derived from fossil fuels with energy generated from renewable resources makes this system unique. While current CAES facilities use off peak electricity to power their compressors, this system uses power from wind turbines. Also, rather than using natural gas for heating of the compressed air before its expansion through a turbine, DSWiSS uses solar thermal energy and thermal storage. For this research, two models were created; the first is a dynamic model of a 1.5 MW variable speed wind turbine, programmed in PSCAD/EMTDC, that utilizes rotor resistive control to maintain rated power output. This model simulates the dynamic response of the wind turbine to changing wind conditions as well as the nominal performance parameters at all wind speeds. The second model is a steady state thermodynamic simulation of the turbomachinery power unit in the DSWiSS facility. By assuming conditions similar to those of a currently operating CAES facility in McIntosh, Alabama, the model calculates the performance parameters of DSWiSS and estimates the relative energy input requirements. By combining these models with a levelized lifetime cost analysis estimates of the power system performance and the cost of energy for the DSWiSS facility were estimated. The combination of these components yielded an efficiency greater than 46% for the main power block and a nearly equal utilization of both renewable resources. It was also estimated that the overall system is only slightly more expensive per unit of electricity generated than the current technologies employed today, namely coal, nuclear, and natural gas, but is comparable to a stand-alone solar thermal facility. However, this economic analysis, though accurate with regard to the technologies chosen, will not be complete until cost values can be placed on some of the externalities associated with power generation such as fuel cost volatility, national security, and emissions. / text

Fresh water shortage and hot weather are common challenges in many countries of the world. In the other hand, the air conditioning systems which are used for indoor cooling cause peak electricity demand during high temperatures hours. This peak hour demand is very important since it is more expensive and mainly is supplied by fossil fuel power plants with lower efficiencies compare to base load fossil fuel or renewable owe plants. Moreover, these peak electricity load fossil fuel power plants cause higher green house gas emission and other environmental effects. So, all these show that any solution for these problems could make life better in those countries and all over the world.In this thesis, a new idea for a Power storage, Cooling storage, and Water production Combined Cycle (PCWCC) is introduced and reviewed. PCWCC is combination of two thermal cycles, Ice Thermal Energy Storage (ITES) and desalination by freezing cycle, which are merged together to make a total solution for fresh water shortage, required cooling, and high peak power demand. ITES is a well known technology for shifting the electricity demand of cooling systems from peak hours to off-peak hours and desalination by freezing is a less known desalination system which is based on the fact that the ice crystals are pure and by freezing raw water and melting resulted ice crystals, pure water will be produced. These two systems have some common processes and equations and this thesis shows that by combining them the resulted PCWCC could be more efficient than each of them. In this thesis, the thermodynamic equations and efficiencies of each PCWCC sub-systems are analyzed and the resulted data are used in finding thermodynamics of PCWCC itself. Also, by using reMIND software, which uses Cplex to find the best combinations of input/output and related processes, the cost of produced fresh water and cooling from PCWCC is compared with total cost of fresh water and cooling produced by each sub-systems of PCWCC in three sample cities all over the world, Kerman, Dubai, and Texas. These cities are chosen since they have similar ambient temperature trend with different electricity and fresh water tariff's. The results show that, the PCWCC is economical where there is a significant electricity price difference between ice charging and ice melting hours, off-peak and peak hours, of the day or when the fresh water price is high compare to electricity price. The results also show that how the revenue from fresh water could cover the used electricity cost and make some income as well.

[pt] Um gerador de pasta de gelo foi desenvolvido para o estudo experimental de suas características de transferência de calor. Uma das características da pasta de gelo é que pode ser bombeada como qualquer líquido. O gerador de pasta de gelo é um evaporador, do tipo trocador de calor de superfície raspada com intensificação mecânica de transferência de calor. Foi estabelecida a influência de vários parâmetros na transferência de calor no gerador de pasta de gelo: a vazão mássica, a velocidade de rotação do raspador, a temperatura da parede na interface, a temperatura de operação da solução aquosa, entre outros. Estudou-se tanto a transferência de calor com ou sem mudança de fase. Utilizaram-se soluções aquosas de etanol com diferentes concentrações. A pasta de gelo era produzida continuamente sem acumulação no evaporador. O gerador era parte de um sistema integral contendo os seguintes componentes: o sistema de medição da fração de gelo on-line, através da medição da massa específica da pasta de gelo; uma bomba helicoidal de cavidade progressiva, que permitia controlar a vazão, por meio de um variador de freqüência; um aquecedor elétrico, atuando como carga térmica, com a possibilidade de variar a capacidade desta carga térmica e, com isto, o controle da temperatura de operação do sistema; e o sistema de aquisição de dados. Foi estabelecido um modelo para determinar, experimentalmente, o número de Nusselt e, por conseguinte, o coeficiente interno de transferência de calor da pasta de gelo. Utilizou-se uma unidade condensadora convencional, com R22 como fluido refrigerante. A pasta de gelo resultante era bombeada continuamente em um circuito fechado, assegurando o estudo de um fluido homogeneamente distribuído, visto que o circuito não permitia a acumulação de pasta de gelo. Os sistemas de geração de pasta de gelo apresentam potencial para reduzir significativamente os custos de capital inicial e operação, quando comparados com tecnologias de sistemas de termoacumulação estáticos de gelo ou dinâmicos, como o ice harvesting. / [en] An ice slurry generator for was developed for the experimental study of its heat transfer characteristics. One of the main characteristic of ice slurry is that it can be pumped as any liquid. The ice slurry generator is an evaporator, with mechanical heat transfer enhancement, by surface scraping. The dependence of several parameters on heat exchanger performance was established. They included: mass flow rate, scraped rotational velocity, surface temperature, solution operating temperature. Single and two-phase flow was studied. Aqueous ethanol solutions, of different concentrations, were used. Ice slurry was produced on a continuous basis. The experimental apparatus consisted of the heat exchanger itself, an on-line ice mass fraction measurement device, a helicoidal positive displacement variable flow rate pump, an electrical heater, the data acquisition system and a R22 condensing unit. The ice slurry was pumped continuously on a closed circuit, providing a homogeneous fluid, as no accumulation of ice was possible. Ice slurry systems have the potential of significant reduction on capital and maintenance costs, when compared to traditional technologies, static or dynamic, of ice thermoaccumulation.

Une grande quantité d’énergie est rejetée par l’industrie à bas niveau de température, en dessous de 200 °C. Afin d’améliorer le rendement énergétique global des procédés utilisés, il est envisageable de valoriser cette chaleur perdue appelée chaleur fatale. Cependant cette valorisation est souvent rendue difficile par la présence d’un décalage temporel entre le moment où l’énergie est rejetée et le moment auquel cette énergie pourrait être de nouveau utilisée. Associant de fortes capacités de stockage ainsi qu’une possible restitution d’énergie à température constante, la solution du stockage de l’énergie thermique par des Matériaux à Changement de Phase, appelés MCP, apparaît comme particulièrement attractive. Cependant, la mise en œuvre de ces systèmes de stockage se heurte à des verrous scientifiques et technologiques tant au niveau du matériau de stockage que du système mais également de son contrôle commande et de son insertion dans les procédés industriels.L’objectif de la thèse est de mettre au point un système de stockage par MCP solide-liquide dans deux gammes de température : 70-85 °C et 120-155 °C. La première correspond aux températures des réseaux de chaleurs ou des chauffages domestiques alors que la deuxième s’applique au préchauffage des procédés industriels déjà existants. La thèse vise à démontrer la faisabilité technique du système de stockage. Le travail s’articule autour de différentes tâches allant de la sélection et la caractérisation des MCP jusqu’à leur mise en œuvre dans un organe de stockage et la simulation numérique de la solution de stockage.Les MCP recensés dans la bibliographie à ces niveaux de températures ont été caractérisés finement par calorimétrie (DSC) afin de déterminer leurs propriétés thermo-physiques sur des échantillons de grade laboratoire. L’acide stéarique pour la gamme 70-85 °C et l’acide sébacique pour la gamme 120-155 °C ont été sélectionnés. Des analyses calorimétriques plus poussées sur le grade industriel de ces matériaux ont été réalisées avec notamment des analyses de vieillissement et de compatibilité avec leur encapsulation respective au sein d’un banc expérimental. Le prototype expérimental de stockage thermique a été dimensionné et conçu pour répondre aux sollicitations simulant les rejets et les demandes d’un procédé industriel. Ce banc d’essais est composé principalement de deux organes de stockage que sont une cuve cylindrique et un échangeur multitubulaire et d’un thermorégulateur servant à simuler le fonctionnement du procédé industriel. Dans l’échangeur multitubulaire, le MCP occupe toute le volume de la calandre tandis que le fluide caloporteur circule dans les tubes. La cuve, quant à elle, contient des capsules sphériques en polyoléfines dans lesquelles le MCP est confiné. Elle est traversée par le fluide caloporteur procédant aux échanges thermiques. Ces capsules sphériques appelées nodules ne peuvent supporter plus de 100 °C et sont exclusivement réservées pour la gamme basse température. Ainsi, l’acide stéarique a été confiné dans les nodules afin de remplir la cuve de stockage. L’acide sébacique a lui été intégré dans la calandre de l’échangeur multitubulaire. Les campagnes expérimentales réalisées ont montré la faisabilité de ces types de stockage. Enfin, un modèle numérique simulant les performances du module de stockage utilisant les MCP encapsulés a été réalisé. Il constitue la première étape d’un outil de simulation complet intégrant les briques technologiques du stockage latent. / A large amount of energy is rejected by the industry at low temperature level, below a temperature of 200 °C. In order to improve the overall energy efficiency of industrial processes, it is possible to re-use this waste heat. However, this energy recovery is often made difficult because of the time difference between the process step at which the energy is lost and the process step at which this energy could be reused. Combining high energy storage capabilities and a possible energy recovery at constant temperature, thermal storage solution by phase change materials (PCM) is particularly attractive. However, this storage systems implementation faces scientific and technologic obstacles concerning both the storage material and system but also its command system and its integration into industrial processes.This thesis aims to develop a thermal energy storage system using a solid-liquid PCM technology in two temperature ranges: 70-85 °C and 120-155 °C. The first one corresponds to temperatures of heating networks or domestic heating systems, while the second one could directly preheat existing industrial processes. The thesis aims to demonstrate the technical feasibility of the storage system. The purpose is divided into different tasks such as PCMs selection and characterization, PCM implementation in a storage system but also numerical simulation of the storage solution.PCM documented in the literature at those temperature ranges were characterized by Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) in order to determine thermo physical properties on laboratory grade samples. Stearic acid for the 70-85 °C temperature range and sebacic acid for the 120-155 °C temperature range were selected. Deeper differential scanning calorimetry analyses were carried out on those industrial grade materials including material ageing process analyses and their compliance with their respective encapsulation within an experimental test bench.Thermal storage experimental prototype was designed in order to meet the demands simulating the rejects and needs of industrial processes. The test bench is mainly composed of two storage systems : a cylindrical tank, a multitubular exchanger and a thermoregulator used to simulate industrial process functioning. The PCM, while in the multitubular exchanger, fills up the whole volume of the shell whereas the heat transfer fluid flows in tubes. The tank, for its part, contains polyolefin spherical capsules in which the PCM is contained. The tank is crossed by the heat transfer fluid conducting heat exchanges. Those spherical capsules called nodules cannot be exposed to temperatures exceeding 100 °C and are exclusively reserved for the low temperatures range. Thus, stearic acid was confined in nodules so as to fill the storage tank. The sebacic acid was incorporated in the multitubular exchanger shell. Experimental campaigns carried out have demonstrated the feasibility of those storage types.

Due to climatic change, increasing thermal loads inbuildings and rising living standards, comfort cooling inbuildings is becoming increasingly important and the demand forcomfort cooling is expanding very quickly around the world. Theincreased cooling demand results in a peak in electrical powerdemand during the hottest summer hours. This peak presents newchallenges and uncertainties to electricity utilities and theircustomers. Cool thermal storage systems have not only the potential tobecome one of the primary solutions to the electrical powerimbalance between production and demand, but also shift coolingenergy use to off-peak periods and avoid peak demand charges.It increases the possibilities of utilizing renewable energysources and waste heat for cooling generation. In addition, acool storage can actually increase the efficiency of combinedheat and power (CHP) generation provided that heat drivencooling is coupled to CHP. Then, the cool storage may avoidpeaks in the heat demand for cooling generation, and this meansthat the CHP can operate at design conditions in most oftime. Phase Change Materials (PCMs) used for cool storage hasobtained considerable attention, since they can be designed tomelt and freeze at a selected temperature and have shown apromising ability to reduce the size of storage systemscompared with a sensible heat storage system because they usethe latent heat of the storage medium for thermal energystorage. The goal of this thesis is to define suitable PCM candidatesfor comfort cooling storage. The thesis work combines differentmethods to determine the thermophysical properties oftetradecane, hexadecane and their binary mixtures, anddemonstrates the potential of using these materials as PCM forcomfort cooling storage. The phase equilibrium of the binarysystem has been studied theoretically as well asexperimentally, resulting in the derivation of the phasediagram. With knowledge of the liquid-solid phase equilibriumcharacteristics and the phase diagram, an improvedunderstanding is provided for the interrelationships involvedin the phase change of the studied materials. It has beenindicated that except for the minimum-melting point mixture,all mixtures melt and freeze within a temperature range and notat a constant temperature, which is so far often assumed in PCMstorage design. In addition, the enthalpy change during thephase transition (heat of fusion) corresponds to the phasechange temperature range; thus, the storage density obtaineddepends on how large a part of the phase change temperaturerange is valid for a given application. Differential Scanning Calorimetery (DSC) is one frequentlyused method in the development of PCMs. In this thesis, it hasbeen found that varying results are obtained depending on theDSC settings throughout the measurements. When the DSC runs ata high heating/cooling rate it will lead to erroneousinformation. Also, the correct phase transition temperaturerange cannot be obtained simply from DSC measurement. Combiningphase equilibrium considerations with DSC measurements gives areliable design method that incorporates both the heat offusion and the phase change temperature range. The potential of PCM storage for peak shaving in differentcooling systems has been demonstrated. A Computer model hasbeen developed for rapid phase equilibrium calculation. The useof phase equilibrium data in the design of a cool storagesystem is presented as a general methodology. Keywords:Comfort cooling, peak shaving, PCM, coolthermal storage system, DSC, phase change temperature range,the heat of fusion, phase equilibrium, phase diagram. Language:English