企業創造價值的來源由傳統的有形資產如土地、廠房和設備等，轉變為無形的智慧資本，然而一般公認會計原則將創造智慧資本的投入視為費用加以處理，使得企業之帳面價值與市場價值的差距日益增加，公司的管理當局及投資人在評價時面臨重大困難，因而有效的智慧資本評價方式變得十分重要。本研究目的即在探討，採用收益基礎的評價模式下，何種資金成本估計方式所估計之資金成本較能有效反應投資人在考慮企業智慧資本之特性和風險後，所要求的必要報酬率，而使得以該資金成本作為折現率，估計企業智慧資本價值，所估計之結果較能反映企業之市場價值。本研究以Fama and French之三因子模式、益本比法以及市場模式估計企業之資金成本，實證結果發現如下： （1）不同資金成本估計方式所估計之結果存有一定程度的差異，而以不同資金成本估計方式所估計之資金成本作為折現率所計算之企業智慧資本價值亦有一定程度的歧異。 （2）三種估計企業資金成本的方式中，僅有Fama and French之三因子模式企業之Beta值呈正相關，而與公司規模呈負相關，為有效的資金成本估計方式。 （3）複迴歸分析結果發現，以三種方式所估計之資金成本作為折現率計算之智慧資本價值均對企業價值具有價值攸關性，而以三因子模式所估計之資金成本作為折現率計算之結果價值攸關性較高。 （4）若將企業依研發支出密度加以區分，在低研發支出密度公司中，以益本比法所估計之折現率計算之智慧資本價值攸關性最高；而在高研發支出密度以及零研發支出密度公司中均以三因子模式所估計之折現率計算之結果價值攸關性較高。 / Intellectual capital has become the origin of value of a company. But traditional GAAP views investment that is helpful to the value of untellectual capital such as R&D and advertisement as expenses, the gap between the book value and the market value of a business has become larger. This study confer that if we value a business through income-based method, what kind of estimated method of cost of capital should we use to make the estimated value of intellectual capital reflect the value of a business more efficiently. In this study we estimated cost of capital using three estimated method: factor model of Fama and French, earning to price ratio(E/P ratio), and market model, and we find: 1.If we use different kind of estimated methods, the estimated cost of capital can be different from each other. And if we use different kinds of cost of capital as discount rate, the estimated value of intellectual capital can be different from each other too. 2.Only the cost of capital that estimated through three factor model can be a effective method to estimate cost of capital of a company. 3.The value of intellectual capital can reflect the market value of the company when we use the cost of capital estimated through factor model, E/P ratio, and marlet model as the discount rate, and the result of Wald test suggest that using the cost of capital estimated by factor model as the discount rate to calculate the value of intellectual capital can reflect the market value more effeciently than others. 4.If we divide our sample into three group using the density of their R&D expenditure, we find that the cost of capital estimated by factor model can be the most efficient if a company has a higher R&D orzero expenditure.

Os mecanismos de proteção aos acionistas e credores surgiram prometendo às empresas que realizam investimentos em governança corporativa obter valorização da organização. Isto se daria porque os financiadores estariam menos expostos à expropriação do seu capital por meio de mecanismos de governança corporativa que assegurassem os seus direitos, o que facilitaria a comercialização de suas ações e títulos, o acesso ao mercado de capitais e uma redução do custo de capital, levando, assim, à valorização da empresa. Dentro deste contexto, este trabalho busca analisar a relação entre governança corporativa e o custo de capital próprio em empresas brasileiras de capital aberto. O presente estudo investiga se as empresas que adotam práticas de governança corporativa, medida pelos níveis diferenciados de governança corporativa da Bovespa, possuem um menor custo de capital próprio associado quando comparadas às empresas que não adotam tais práticas. Para o cálculo do custo de capital próprio foram utilizados o CAPM e o Modelo de Três Fatores com o intuito de verificar se a relação com as práticas de governança independe do método adotado. Utilizou-se a regressão linear múltipla para as análises estatísticas tendo como variável dependente o custo de capital próprio e as variáveis independentes de governança corporativa, grau de alavancagem financeira, grau de alavancagem operacional, os setores, o grau de intangibilidade da empresa e o tempo que a empresa está presente na Bovespa. Foi encontrada uma relação positiva do custo de capital próprio, medido pelo CAPM, com as empresas que adotam qualquer um dos níveis diferenciados de governança corporativa, ou seja, o custo de capital próprio é maior para empresas que aderiram a tais práticas. Nas demais análises, a governança corporativa não foi significativa. Dentro deste contexto, não se confirma a hipótese apresentada de menor custo de capital próprio associado à governança corporativa. Assim sendo, a valorização das empresas poderia se dar pelo incremento do fluxo de caixa esperado e não pela diminuição do custo de capital próprio. Pode-se considerar também que a adoção das práticas de governança corporativa estaria relacionada às empresas que possuem um maior risco associado, e que pretendem reduzi-lo adotando medidas de proteção ao acionista minoritário, ou ainda que o beta da empresa que representa o CAPM estaria mostrando um desempenho superior da empresa com relação ao mercado e dentro deste contexto não estaria sinalizando o risco associado, mas sim um melhor comportamento da ação da empresa se comparada ao mercado. / Protection mechanisms to shareholders and creditors were created promising that companies that invest in corporate governance would be appreciated. This would be possible because investors would be less exposed to the expropriation of their own capital by means of corporate governance mechanisms that ensure their rights and, accordingly, this would facilitate the sale of their shares and securities, the access to the capital market and a decrease in the cost of capital, appreciating thus the company. In this context, this paper has the purpose of analyzing the relationship between corporate governance and the cost of capital in Brazilian publicly-traded companies. This study determines whether the companies that adopt corporate governance practices, measured by Bovespa\'s (São Paulo Stock Exchange) corporate governance different levels, have a lower cost of capital when compared to companies that do not adopt these practices. To calculate the cost of capital, the CAPM and the Three-factor model were used to verify whether the relationship with corporate governance practices depends or not on the method adopted. The multiple linear regression was used to analyze statistics and the dependent variable was the cost of capital and the independent variables were the degree of financial leverage, the degree of operating leverage, the industries, the company\'s degree of intangibility and the time the company is listed on Bovespa. A positive relationship between the cost of capital, measured by the CAPM, and companies that adopt any of the corporate governance different levels was found, namely, the cost of capital is higher for companies that adhered to these practices. In the other analyses, the corporate governance was not significant. In this context, the hypothesis determining that a lower cost of capital is related to corporate governance is not confirmed. Therefore, the companies could be appreciated by increasing the expected cash flow and not by decreasing the cost of capital. We may also consider that corporate governance practices would be adopted by companies subject to a higher risk and that intend to reduce it by adopting protection measures to the minority shareholder, or that the company\'s beta that represents the CAPM would show a higher performance in relation to the market and, in this case, this would not highlight the risk, but a better performance of the company\'s shares when compared to the market.

Att slå marknaden har varit ett kontroversiellt ämne inom akademin under en väldigt lång tid.Enligt EMH, en grundläggande finansteori, är det inte möjligt att “slå marknaden” under enlång tid utan att ta högre risk. Hedgefond-förvaltaren Joel Greenblatt publicerade år 2006 enformel som ska kunna prestera över marknaden till lägre risk, även långsiktigt, The MagicFormula. Denna studie utvärderar en Magic Formula-portfölj på den svenska marknaden i syfteatt undersöka om den kan generera en abnormal avkastning i perioden år 2000-2020. Dettagenomförs genom en kvantitativ analys. Resultaten visar att Magic Formula-portföljensintercept är signifikant skiljt från 0 i Fama & Frenchs trefaktormodell som inkluderar enmarknads-, storleks- och värdefaktor. Eftersom de riskpremier som testats för inte förklararavkastningen dras slutsatsen att antingen är trefaktormodellen bristfällig, eller så existerar enanomali kopplat till strategin.

Value creation in any stock market is a highly discussed topic with an abundant amount of generalized models aiming to predict future returns. Although no such tool exists yet there are, however, acknowledged models from peer-reviewed journals that have received a lot of attention over the years in examining company performance. This thesis is therefore built on the well-known Fama-French three-factor model. The original Fama-French three-factor model is extended by adding a new size premium and a new value premium, both based upon the spread between the return on invested capital (ROIC) – the weighted average cost of capital (WACC). The purpose of this is to make the returns of a portfolio account for cash flow and debt on top of risk, size, and value premium for a company. This thesis finds that the ROIC-WACC spread adds explanatory power to the existing Fama and French three-factor model on the Swedish stock market. The research method of this study is quantitative and deductive. The considered period is six years between the years 2014 and 2020.

The All-Electric Vehicle (AEV) industry development has intensified and is connected to governmentefforts to minimize greenhouse gas emissions and encourage people to buy electric vehicles. This hasled to all the lights turning on newly established all-electric vehicle makers and some older players. Thegrowth of these companies is depicted in their market capitalization, which has seen an unprecedentedrun. However, one can notice a knowledge gap in the analysis of factors affecting such companies'expected rate of return. This research focuses on analyzing the factors from three of the most knownasset pricing models - CAPM, Fama-French 3 Factor, and Fama-French 5 Factor models. It shows whichof these factors are significant in estimating the expected return rate for nine chosen companies and theimpact of each considerable factor on the return rate.Additionally, we calculate the expected return rate using the beforementioned models to verify whetherthere is an uptrend or not in the electric vehicle market. The current research is limited to companieslisted on the US stock market, with only all-electric vehicle production lines. We make an introductionto the AEV theoretical aspects and related market structure. We also present theoretical concepts behindthe expected rate of return perception.The analysis showed that the market risk premium impacts 100% of the companies. The SMB factorinfluences 55% of the companies while the HML factor only 11%. Finally, RMW affects 66% of thechosen dataset and CMA 77%. For all companies, there is a positive expected return rate. Looking atthe significant coefficients for each model, the results are the following: we can observe that for CAPMand all the companies, 100% of the coefficients are positive. For FF3FM, 93% of the significant factorsare positive, while only 7% are negative. Finally, for FF5FM, out of the 28 significant factors, 65% ofthe coefficients are positive, and 35% are negative.

Det finns ett ökat fokus på hållbarhet på grund av miljömässiga utmaningar vi som global gemenskap ställs inför, såsom klimatuppvärmning. Det har dock funnits en brist på ekonomiska incitament att åtgärda detta. Nu finns det studier som påvisar marknadsfördelar för företag som är mer miljömedvetna - och de som yrkar på motsatsen. Uppsatsen ämnar att kvantitativt studera om det finns en förändring i totala aktieavkastningen när företag i OMXS30 får högre hållbarhetsbetyg inriktade på miljö. Denna uppsats använder sig av Refinitivs Environmental Pillar (EP) betyg. Sambandet mellan avkastning och EP-betyg undersöks med hjälp av regressionsmodeller baserade på Fama-French trefaktormodell, där EP-betyg lagts till som ytterligare en faktor. Regressioner genomförs för OMXS30 företagen. Det sammanställda resultatet är ej statistiskt signifikant, men tyder på att det finns ett negativt samband mellan EP-betyg och aktieavkastning. / There is an increased focus on sustainability due to the environmental challenges that we as a global community are facing, such as global warming. There has however been a lack of economic incentive to do this. There are now studies that demonstrate market advantages for companies that are more environmentally conscious - and those that implore the opposite. This essay aims to quantitatively study if there is a change in total stock return when companies in the OMXS30 score higher in sustainability ratings focused on the environment. The essay uses Refinitiv’s Environmental Pillar (EP) scores. The relationship between return and EP-score is examined with the help of regression models based on the Fama-French three factor model, where EP scores are added as an additional factor. Regressions are performed for OMXS30 companies. The compiled results are not statistically significant; however, they suggest a negative relationship between EP scores and stock returns.

Previous scholars have viewed expenditures on ESG (environmental, social, governance) in two distinct ways. In one way, it has been viewed as wasteful if it does not directly contribute to the business. The other perspective being that by addressing ESG-issues, one can improve businesses by improving society. In recent times, ESG has become an increasingly common topic due to the increased awareness and debates regarding the environment and sustainability. The increased attention toward ESG issues has resulted in increased ESG reporting by firms. As a result, shareholders and stakeholders can address more of their concerns by knowing how ESG-friendly a firm is. With the increased attention given to ESG in recent years, its actual effects on a firm becomes increasingly interesting. The relationship between ESG and firm performance and the relationship between ESG and stock return has been studied by several researchers over the years. The different studies have come to different conclusions regarding these relationships and the relationships are still inconsistent. In this paper, the relationship between ESG-scores and firm performance, as well as ESG-scores and stock returns in Swedish large-cap firms is examined. This study aims to investigate the relationship between ESG-scores and firm performance and the relationship between ESG-scores and stock returns. Furthermore, the study measures firm performance by measuring total asset turnover, net profit margin, and operating profit margin. Stock returns are measured with the use of historical yearly stock returns. The relationships are investigated with regression analysis. This study has a quantitative approach, where secondary data between the years 2016-2020 has been extracted from the database Refinitiv Eikon. The study finds that the relationship between ESG-scores and total asset turnover is negative, meaning that increased ESG-scores result in less efficient use of assets. The relationship between ESG-score and net profit margin is insignificant, and no conclusion can be drawn from that relationship. The relationship between ESG-scores and operating profit margin is positive, meaning that customers are willing to pay more for a firm's sustainable practices. The relationship between ESG-scores and stock returns is insignificantly negative; thus, we cannot draw any conclusions regarding the relationship, but it could indicate that ESG-scores are accounted for in the stock price.

Inledning: Hållbarhet blir allt viktigare för svenska fondsparare. Följaktligen har detta lett till en ökning av antalet hållbara fonder som förutspås fortsätta att öka. Tidigare forskning har studerat hur hållbara fonder presterar i jämförelse med icke-hållbara fonder. Studierna visar på skilda resultat. Det finns studier som visar att hållbara fonder överpresterar de icke-hållbara fonderna, men det finns också studier som visar på det motsatta.  Syfte: Studien syftar till att jämföra prestationen hos hållbara och icke-hållbara fonder genom att använda alfa som ett mått på avkastning. Med utgångspunkt i tidigare forskning och teorier syftar studien vidare till att diskutera fondernas prestationer för att identifiera eventuella skillnader och förklaringar till dessa.  Metod: Studien följde en kvantitativ forskningsstrategi och en deduktiv ansats. Studien inkluderade 21 hållbara fonder samt 16 icke-hållbara fonder. Studien tillämpade regressioner med utgångspunkt i CAPM samt Fama och French trefaktormodell för varje fond. För att studera fondernas prestation studerades regressionens intercept alfa, som förklarar tillgångens förväntade avkastningen i förhållande till riskfaktorerna. Slutsats: Studiens resultat tyder på att hållbara fonder underpresterar marknaden, medan icke-hållbara fonder överpresterar marknaden. Det är dock inte möjligt att dra några statistiska slutsatser från studiens resultat. Studiens resultat analyseras och förklaras utifrån modern portföljteori, prissättning av aktier, EHM samt beteendefinans. / Introduction: Sustainability is becoming increasingly important for Swedish fund savers. Consequently, this has led to an increase in the number of sustainable funds that is predicted to continue to increase. Previous research has studied how sustainable funds perform in comparison to non-sustainable funds. The studies show different results. There are studies that show that sustainable funds outperform non-sustainable funds, but there are also studies that show the opposite. Purpose: The study aims to compare the performance of sustainable funds and non-sustainable funds using alpha as a measure of performance. Building upon prior research and theories, the study further seeks to discuss the funds’ performances to identify any differences and explanations for these results. Method: This study followed a quantitative research strategy and a deductive approach. The study included 21 sustainable funds and 16 non-sustainable funds. The study applied regression based on the CAPM and the Fama & French three factor model for each fund. To study the performance of the funds, the intercept alpha of the regression was studied. Alpha explains the asset's expected return in relation to the risk factors.  Conclusion: The study's findings suggest that sustainable funds underperform the market, while non-sustainable funds outperform the market. However, it is not possible to draw any statistical conclusions from this study's result. The results of the study are analyzed and explained based on modern portfolio theory, pricing of shares, EHM and behavioral finance.

The primary objective of this dissertation is to revisit the CAPM and the Fama-French multi-factor models with a view to evaluate the validity of the probabilistic assumptions imposed (directly or indirectly) on the particular data used. By thoroughly testing the assumptions underlying these models, several departures are found and the original linear regression models are respecified. The respecification results in a family of heterogeneous Student's t models which are shown to account for all the statistical regularities in the data. This family of models provides an appropriate basis for revisiting the empirical adequacy of the CAPM and the Fama-French multi-factor models, as well as other models, such as alternative asset pricing models and risk evaluation models. Along the lines of providing a sound basis for reliable inference, the respecified models can serve as a coherent basis for selecting the relevant factors from the set of possible ones. The latter contributes to the enhancement of the substantive adequacy of the CAPM and the multi-factor models. / Ph. D. / The primary objective of this dissertation is to revisit the CAPM and the FamaFrench multi-factor models with a view to evaluate the validity of the probabilistic assumptions imposed (directly or indirectly) on the particular data used. By probing for potential departures from the Normality, Linearity, Homoskedasticity, Independence, and t-invariance assumptions, it is shown that the assumptions implicitly imposed on these empirical asset pricing models are inappropriate. In light of these results, the probabilistic assumptions underlying the CAPM and the Fama-French multi-factor models are replaced with the Studentís t, Linearity, Heteroskedasticity, Markov Dependence, and t-heterogeneity assumptions. The new probabilistic structure results in a family of heterogeneous Studentís t models which are shown to account for all the statistical regularities in the data. This family of models provides an appropriate basis for revisiting the empirical adequacy of the CAPM and the Fama-French multifactor models, as well as other models, such as alternative asset pricing models and risk evaluation models. Along the lines of providing a sound basis for reliable statistical inference results, the proposed models can serve as a coherent basis for selecting the potential sources of risk from a set of possible ones. The latter contributes to the enhancement of the substantive adequacy of the CAPM and the multi-factor models.

Socially responsible investing has presented itself as a growing, multifaceted, advanced and sophisticated investment philosophy. Socially responsible investment (SRI) involves incorporating social, ethical and responsible investment objectives with financial investment objectives during the investment decision-making process. Social, ethical and responsible investment objectives are set in line with environmental, social and corporate governance (ESG) criteria which are established within the SRI strategy followed. SRI strategies include screening (negative, positive and best-of-sector), shareholder activism and cause-based investing. Although international SRI markets such as that of the United States of America and the United Kingdom are sophisticated and established markets, the South African SRI market is still relatively new and is yet to reach its full potential. Thus, as a growing market, little research regarding the long term risk-adjusted performance of SRI funds in South Africa has been conducted. The long term risk-adjusted performance of the sample of SRI funds was measured through the use of five risk-adjusted performance measures, namely the Treynor ratio, Sharpe ratio, Jensen’s alpha, Sortino ratio and Omega ratio, and through the use of three performance measurement models which included the capital asset pricing model (CAPM), Fama-French three-factor model and Carhart four-factor model. The risk-adjusted performance of the sample of SRI funds was measured with the intent to establish if these funds out- or underperformed against three benchmark categories, namely the Financial Times Stock Exchange/Johannesburg Stock Exchange (FTSE/JSE) SRI Index, a matched sample of conventional investment (non-SRI) funds and the FTSE/JSE All Share Index. The probable effect of the 2007/08 global financial crisis was also measured to analyse whether such a hazardous market event affected the performance of the SRI funds. According to the results and findings, the risk-adjusted performance of the SRI funds has improved over the research period. However, the SRI funds neither outperformed nor underperformed against the three benchmark categories over the research period. The performance measurement models’ analysis indicated that the SRI funds were less sensitive to market fluctuations, more exposed to small capitalisation portfolios, more growth-oriented, and exhibited significant momentum after the period of the 2007/08 global financial crisis. Furthermore, the analysis indicated that the SRI funds significantly underperformed against the non-SRI funds during the Performance of socially responsible investment funds in South Africa research period. Mixed results were obtained with regards to the probable effect of the 2007/08 global financial crisis on the performance of the SRI funds.