Nous narrons la toponymie de Beyrouth, considérée comme partie intégrante de l’idéologie du corps politique du Liban, installé à Beyrouth depuis 1920. Nous commençons par une réflexion sur les rapports entre centre politique, ses principes fondateurs, et toponymie: l’inscription toponymique est l’insertion ultime du politique dans l’aménagement. La toponymie beyrouthine inscrit le Grand-Liban (1920), et la Constitution libanaise (1926), sur les cartes. Elle inscrit le confessionnalisme politique résultant du Pacte national (1943) et ses symboles « sacrés », ainsi qu’une présence confirmée des « Orient » et « Occident » et un récit national libanais partiellement réinventé et présenté « en continuité ». Elle présente les signes d’une continuité urbaine visible. Nous mettons l’exemple beyrouthin en perspective avec ceux de Damas et de Dubaï : le premier est « réécrit » avec l’avènement du Baath en 1963 et présente une rupture toponymique avec le passé syrien pré-baathiste, ainsi qu’une présence triomphaliste du panarabisme; et le deuxième inventé afin de donner une profondeur historique à la carte de l’émirat et une dimension commerciale à ses noms des lieux. L’étude des inscriptions toponymiques, en parallèle avec les principes fondateurs du centre politique, permet d’approfondir la connaissance des systèmes politiques, leurs idéologies, et leurs politique d’urbanisme. / I narrate toponymy of Beirut, considered as a revelator and a marker of the Lebanese body politic, constructed in Beirut since 1920. This memoir begins by reflecting on the rapports between the centre politic (capital city or seat of government), its founding principles, and toponymy : the toponyme is the ultimate insertion of the political in everyday’s banality. Beiruti toponymy writes the Grand-Liban (1920), the Lebanese Constitution (1926), on the city’s maps. Also it inscribes political confessionalism, resulting of the Lebanese National Pact (1943) and its sacred symbols, thus a confirmed presence of « East » and « West » and a Lebanese national narrative partially re-invented and presented as a « continuum ». It also presents signs of a visible continuity of the local elite. We put the Beiruti example in perspective with those of Damascus and of Dubai : the Damascene one is « re-written » by the Baath rule since 1963 and presents a toponymic rupture with the Syrian pre-baathist past but a confirmed presence of pan-Arabism; the Dubaian one is invented in order to give a historical depth to the map of Dubai and a commercial dimension to its place names. Study of toponyms, in parallel with that of founding principles of the centre, can inform political systems, their ideological background, and their urban policy.

Este texto apresenta os resultados da análise de 18 hodônimos do centro urbano de Caxias do Sul, a fim de descobrir os motivos que influenciaram na denominação das ruas desse lugar. Na época da denominação, Caxias do Sul tinha população predominantemente italiana e os italianos não foram contemplados com os nomes dos principais logradouros da cidade. O objetivo foi descobrir por que o grupo majoritário não foi homenageado, levando em considerações as relações de poder. Foi realizada uma pesquisa documental, levando-se em consideração elementos linguísticos e extralinguísticos implícitos e explícitos nestes hodônimos. Apoiada nos princípios teórico-metodológicos da toponímia, com Dauzat e Rostaing, adaptados à realidade brasileira e adotados pela Universidade de São Paulo (USP), especialmente por DICK, e por outras universidades públicas do Brasil, a análise teve como tema investigar as razões que foram determinantes na escolha de nomes não-italianos para designar o grupo de ruas centrais de Caxias do Sul e identificar as implicações sociais, econômicas e, sobretudo, políticas que eles escondem. O poder político foi determinante para a predominância de nomes luso-brasileiros nas ruas analisadas. / Submitted by Marcelo Teixeira (mvteixeira@ucs.br) on 2014-06-02T17:54:15Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertacao Trissia Ordovas Sartori.pdf: 360706 bytes, checksum: ea989e2de22142c1711cfd93c9d60f4c (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-02T17:54:15Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertacao Trissia Ordovas Sartori.pdf: 360706 bytes, checksum: ea989e2de22142c1711cfd93c9d60f4c (MD5) / This text presents the results of the analysis of 18 names of the city centre streets of Caxias do Sul. The main aim of this study is to identify and give an explanation about the motives which influenced in the denomination of the city centre streets. A documental research was conducted and it took into consideration linguistic and extra linguistic elements implicit and explicit in these denominations. Following methodological theoretical principles of toponymy which are applied to the Brazilian reality and used by the University of São Paulo and other public universities in Brazil, the analysis had as an objective to investigate the reasons which determined the selection of the non-Italian names to designate the group of central streets in Caxias do Sul and identify the social, economic, and especially political implications they hide.

Este texto apresenta os resultados da análise de 18 hodônimos do centro urbano de Caxias do Sul, a fim de descobrir os motivos que influenciaram na denominação das ruas desse lugar. Na época da denominação, Caxias do Sul tinha população predominantemente italiana e os italianos não foram contemplados com os nomes dos principais logradouros da cidade. O objetivo foi descobrir por que o grupo majoritário não foi homenageado, levando em considerações as relações de poder. Foi realizada uma pesquisa documental, levando-se em consideração elementos linguísticos e extralinguísticos implícitos e explícitos nestes hodônimos. Apoiada nos princípios teórico-metodológicos da toponímia, com Dauzat e Rostaing, adaptados à realidade brasileira e adotados pela Universidade de São Paulo (USP), especialmente por DICK, e por outras universidades públicas do Brasil, a análise teve como tema investigar as razões que foram determinantes na escolha de nomes não-italianos para designar o grupo de ruas centrais de Caxias do Sul e identificar as implicações sociais, econômicas e, sobretudo, políticas que eles escondem. O poder político foi determinante para a predominância de nomes luso-brasileiros nas ruas analisadas. / This text presents the results of the analysis of 18 names of the city centre streets of Caxias do Sul. The main aim of this study is to identify and give an explanation about the motives which influenced in the denomination of the city centre streets. A documental research was conducted and it took into consideration linguistic and extra linguistic elements implicit and explicit in these denominations. Following methodological theoretical principles of toponymy which are applied to the Brazilian reality and used by the University of São Paulo and other public universities in Brazil, the analysis had as an objective to investigate the reasons which determined the selection of the non-Italian names to designate the group of central streets in Caxias do Sul and identify the social, economic, and especially political implications they hide.

Cette thèse a pour ambition de contribuer à la reconstitution de la géographie religieuse et de l'histoire des XVIIe et XVIIIe provinces de Haute-Égypte, provinces communément désignées par l'appellation « nome cynopolite » à partir de l'époque ptolémaïque. Fondée sur une analyse diachronique des sources épigraphiques égyptiennes issues des domaines sacré et profane, son principal objectif est de déterminer à quel moment ces deux provinces ont fusionné, mais aussi d'appréhender le rôle joué par Hardaï, la Cynopolis des Grecs, dans cette modification territoriale. L'examen de la toponymie et des traditions cultuelles locales associé à une étude prosopographique des individus ayant œuvré dans les XVIIe et XVIIIe provinces de Haute-Égypte permettent ainsi d'éclaircir ces faits afin de mieux retracer l'histoire mouvementée de cette région. / This thesis aims to contribute to the reconstruction of the sacred geography and history of the XVIIth and XVIIIth provinces of Upper Egypt commonly referred to as « Cynopolite nome » from the Ptolemaic period. Based on a diachronic analysis of the Egyptian epigraphic sources from the sacred and profane realms, its main purpose is to determine when these two provinces have merged but also to understand the role played by Hardaï, the Greek Cynopolis, in this territorial change. The examination of toponymy and local religious traditions together with a prosopographical study of individual office-holders in the XVIIth and XVIIIth provinces of Upper Egypt enable us to clarify these facts in order to better trace the eventful history of this region.

This thesis deals with toponym of Tschechei, which has not been studied yet in detail. This topic is still relevant since even today the Czech Republic is also called Tschechei by natives and non-natives. In this work, three theories were formulated, which describe the etymology and usage of this term. These theories were then applied in diachronic and synchronic analyses to find out the meaning of the term Tschechei used by different users of a language. Furthermore, the corresponding theory was assigned to each use. This method proved that this term is present in diachronic as well as in synchronic language usage. This thesis presents a conclusion that the explanation and description of this toponym in the available dictionaries is not sufficient. Therefore, the term of Tschechei is defined as a separate dictionary entry for the prepared German-Czech dictionary.

Le 375e anniversaire de Tiohtià:ke/Montréal en 2017 est un événement historique qui a donné naissance à de nombreux projets artistiques, urbanistiques et commerciaux dans l’optique de célébrer l’histoire de la métropole. La présence autochtone ancienne et contemporaine sur le territoire insulaire a été mise en lumière dans un contexte dit de réconciliation. Les actes commémoratifs orchestrés par la ville sont soutenus par plusieurs voix autochtones, mais également critiqués par de nombreuses autres. Ce mémoire se penche sur l’un des legs de cette célébration coloniale, conçu suite à l’extension d’un tronçon du chemin de ceinture du Mont-Royal (CCMR). La partie du projet d’aménagement retrouvé sur le troisième sommet se décline en deux volets: le premier concerne l’installation d’une œuvre d’art public réalisée par la Société des archives affectives en collaboration avec Nadia Myre, artiste Anichinabé. Par l’entremise de la politique du 1% et commissionnée par le Bureau d’art public, l’Étreinte des temps, une sculpture en bronze inaugurée en 2019. Le deuxième volet concerne le changement toponymique du parc dans lequel l'œuvre est installée, le nom du sommet Outremont est remplacé par une désignation en kanien’kehá : Tiohtià:ke Otsira'kéhne. Conjointement, ces études de cas permettent d’analyser le régime colonial, les relations du milieu des arts avec l’autochtonie, la sous-représentation des artistes autochtones dans la collection municipale, l’héritage toponymique et les spécificités autochtones concernant le rapport au territoire. / The 375th anniversary of Tiohtià:ke/Montreal in 2017 is a historic event that was fertile to numerous artistic, urban planning and commercial projects with the main goal of celebrating the metropole’s history. The ancient and contemporary Aboriginal presence on the island’s territory was highlighted and framed in a so-called reconciliation context. The commemorative acts orchestrated by the city are supported by several indigenous voices, but also criticized by many others. This thesis examines one of the legacies of this colonial celebration, a project conceived following the extension of the Mount-Royal loop trail (Chemin de ceinture du Mont-Royal (CCMR)). The development project located on the third summit is divided into two parts: the first part is a public work of art produced by the Société des archives affectives in collaboration with Nadia Myre, a Anishinabe artist. They created l'Étreinte des temps, a bronze sculpture inaugurated in 2019 through the 1% policy and commissioned by the Bureau d'art public. The second part concerns the toponymic change of the park in which the work is installed, the name of the third summit or Outremont summit is replaced by a designation in Kanien'kehá: Tiohtià:ke Otsira'kéhne. Together, these case studies make possible a deep analysis of the colonial regime, the relations of the art world with Indigenous people, the under-representation of Indigenous artists in the municipal collection, the toponymic heritage and the Indigenous specificities concerning the relationship to the territory.

La présente recherche explore les interactions entre les différentes actrices d’un quartier dans un contexte de transformation urbaine, afin de comprendre en quoi ces interactions contribuent à façonner des identités sociales. Il s’agit de comprendre les dynamiques sociales qui se tissent entre les formes de pouvoir incarnées par les instances officielles, les médias et les résidentes d’un quartier. En s’appuyant sur le quartier Hochelaga-Maisonneuve (HM) à Montréal en cours de gentrification depuis le début des années 2000, cette recherche se penche sur l’hypothèse d’une identité sociale située, et montre que cette identité est liée aux discours médiatiques et officiels. Cette étude prend la forme d’une ethnographie rétrospective virtuelle qui plonge au cœur de la réalité socioéconomique du HM entre 2004 et 2023. L’étude transversale se concentre sur la période entre 2010 et 2012, au moment clé où discussions et actions visaient à transformer le quartier à travers la mise en place d’une opération marketing destinée à changer l’image du HM. L’étude longitudinale contextualise l’étude transversale et en vérifie les prolongements antérieurs et ultérieurs. Ces deux études conjointes ont été menées sur un grand corpus constitué d’un corpus médiatique composé d’articles tirés des journaux montréalais Le Devoir, La Presse, Le Journal de Montréal entre 2004 et 2023, du sous-corpus du corpus FRAN-HOMA 2012 (SC-FH), constitué de 38 entretiens sociolinguistiques réalisés en 2012 dans le HM, d’un corpus de locutrices du reportage YouTube « C’est quoi la gentrification à Hochelaga-Maisonneuve » réalisé en 2016 (R-YT) et composé de 15 locutrices du HM, d’un corpus communautaire, représenté par le site Web chlag.info en 2016 et 2017 et par les médias communautaires Le Fouineur libre (2004-2009) et La Serrure libre (2010-2012), et d’un corpus officiel contenant le plan stratégique de la Société de développement commercial (SDC) Promenade Hochelaga-Maisonneuve, composé de 85 pages de planification stratégique et marketing pour les deux artères commerciales du quartier. À travers ces différentes instances discursives, je m’intéresse aux toponymes utilisés par les actrices du corpus pour désigner le HM, et plus spécifiquement aux toponymes non officiels HoMa, Hochelag et Chlag. L’étude des toponymes révèle une dynamique complexe entre l’identité imposée de haut en bas par les instances officielles et les appropriations locales par les résidentes du quartier. Les médias traditionnels, en adoptant des toponymes tels que HoMa, contribuent à narrativiser la revitalisation, tandis que les résidentes du quartier, en privilégiant des appellations historiques ou populaires comme Hochelag et Chlag, manifestent une résistance à cette redéfinition et une affirmation de leur identité locale. Le cœur de cette recherche repose sur l’analyse de la façon dont les discours médiatiques et officiels sur la gentrification et la revitalisation interagissent avec les perceptions et les expériences vécues des résidentes. Cette interaction souligne l’existence d’une dualité au sein de l’identité sociale du quartier : d’une part, une vision modernisée et embourgeoisée promue par les médias et les promoteurs, et d’autre part, une identité plus ancrée et authentique ressentie par les résidentes. Cette dualité se traduit par des perceptions contrastées du processus de gentrification : certaines y voient une amélioration de la qualité de vie tandis que d’autres ressentent une perte d’authenticité et une menace à la cohésion sociale du quartier. L’analyse longitudinale et transversale du corpus révèle les dynamiques de résistance face à la gentrification. Alors que la SDC et les promoteurs tentent de remodeler l’image du quartier, une partie des résidentes exprime un désaccord, percevant ces efforts comme une forme de marginalisation et une menace pour l’identité historique et culturelle du quartier. Cette opposition est particulièrement évidente dans les discours des médias communautaires et des résidentes engagées contre la gentrification, qui mettent en lumière les tensions entre le développement économique et la préservation de l’identité sociale. Enfin, la recherche aborde la question de la mythogénèse dans la revitalisation du quartier. La création d’un mythe urbain autour du HM, soutenu par la SDC et relayé par les médias, vise à renforcer l’attachement des résidentes à leur quartier. Cependant, cette stratégie rencontre une résistance, car elle est perçue comme une tentative de réinvention artificielle de l’identité du quartier. Les résidentes cherchent à se réapproprier leur quartier en opposition à cette image idéalisée, mettant en relief une lutte pour le maintien de l’authenticité et de la réalité sociale du HM. Cette thèse révèle ainsi la complexité des dynamiques sociales dans un quartier en cours de gentrification. Elle met en lumière l’importance des discours médiatiques et officiels dans la formation de l’identité sociale et montre comment les résidentes naviguent et réagissent à ces influences pour maintenir une connexion avec l’histoire et l’identité réelle de leur communauté. / This research explores the interactions amongst various stakeholders within a neighborhood undergoing urban transformation, aiming to understand how these interactions play a part in shaping social identities. It delves into the social dynamics that weave between forms of power embodied by official institutions, the media, and neighborhood residents. Focusing on the gentrifying Hochelaga-Maisonneuve (HM) area in Montreal since the early 2000s, this study explores the hypothesis of a situated social identity of the neighborhood and demonstrates how this identity is linked to media and official discourses. The study adopts a virtual retrospective ethnography, immersing into the socio-economic reality of HM from 2004 to 2023. The cross-sectional analysis focuses on the period between 2010 and 2012, a critical time when discussions and actions aimed at transforming the neighborhood through a marketing operation intended to change HM’s image. The longitudinal study contextualizes and verifies the extensions of the cross-sectional study before and after this period. These joint studies were conducted on a large corpus comprising a media corpus of articles from Montreal newspapers Le Devoir, La Presse, Le Journal de Montréal between 2004 and 2023; the sub-corpus of the FRAN-HOMA 2012 (SC-FH), consisting of 38 sociolinguistic interviews conducted in 2012 in HM; a corpus of speakers from the 2016 YouTube report "What is Gentrification in Hochelaga-Maisonneuve?" (R-YT) composed of 15 HM speakers; a community corpus represented by the chlag.info website in 2016 and 2017, and community media Le Fouineur libre (2004-2009) and La Serrure libre (2010-2012); and an official corpus containing the strategic plan of the Société de développement commercial Promenade Hochelaga-Maisonneuve, consisting of 85 pages of strategic and marketing planning for the neighborhood’s commercial arteries. Through these various discursive instances, the study focuses on the toponyms used by the actors in the corpus, specifically the unofficial toponyms HoMa, Hochelag, and Chlag. This analysis of toponyms reveals a complex dynamic between top-down imposed identity by official entities and local appropriations by neighborhood residents. Traditional media, by adopting toponyms such as HoMa, contribute to narrating the revitalization, while neighborhood residents, preferring historical or popular names like Hochelag and Chlag, demonstrate resistance to this redefinition and affirm their local identity. The core of this research lies in analyzing how media and official discourses on gentrification and revitalization interact with residents’ perceptions and lived experiences. This interaction highlights a duality within the neighborhood’s social identity: on one hand, a modernized and gentrified vision promoted by the media and developers, and on the other, a more rooted and authentic identity felt by the residents. This duality is reflected in contrasting perceptions of the gentrification process, with some viewing it as an improvement in quality of life and others feeling a loss of authenticity and a threat to social cohesion. The longitudinal and cross-sectional analysis of the corpus reveals dynamics of resistance to gentrification. While the SDC and developers attempt to reshape the neighborhood’s image, some residents express disagreement, perceiving these efforts as a form of marginalization and a threat to the historic and cultural identity of the area. This opposition is particularly evident in the discourses of community media and residents actively engaged against gentrification, highlighting tensions between economic development and preservation of social identity. Finally, the research addresses the role of mythogenesis in the neighborhood’s revitalization. The creation of an urban myth around HM, supported by the SDC and relayed by the media, aims to strengthen residents’ attachment to their neighborhood. However, this strategy encounters resistance as it is perceived as an artificial reinvention of the neighborhood’s identity. Residents seek to reappropriate their neighborhood in opposition to this idealized image, highlighting a struggle to maintain authenticity and social reality. This thesis thus reveals the complexity of social dynamics in a gentrifying neighborhood. It illuminates the importance of media and official discourses in forming social identity and shows how residents navigate and react to these influences to maintain a connection with the history and real identity of their community.

Text in English / This qualitative study presents an onomastic perspective on the changing linguistic landscape of Zimbabwe which resulted from the post-2000 land reforms (also known as the Third Chimurenga). When veterans of Zimbabwe’s War of Liberation assumed occupancy of former white-owned farms, they immediately pronounced their take-over of the land through changes in place names. The resultant toponymic landscape is anchored in the discourses of the First and Second Chimurenga. Through recasting the Chimurenga (war of liberation) narrative, the proponents of the post-2000 land reforms endeavoured to create a historical continuum from the colonisation of Zimbabwe in 1890 to the post-2000 reforms, which were perceived as an attempt to redress the historical anomaly of land inequality. The aim of this study is to examine toponymic changes on the geo-linguistic landscape, and establish the extent of the changes and the post-colonial identity portrayed by these place names. Within the case study design, research methods included in-depth interviews, document study and observations as means of data generation. Through the application of critical and sociolinguistic theories in the form of post-colonial theory, complemented by geo-semiotics, political semiotics and language ecology, this study uncovers the richness of toponymy in exposing a cryptic social narrative reflective of, among others, contestations of power. The findings indicate that post-2000 toponymy is a complex mixture of pre-colonial, colonial and post-colonial place names. These names recast the various narratives in respect of the history of Zimbabwe through the erasure of colonial toponyms and resuscitation older Chimurenga names. The resultant picture portrayed by post-2000 toponymy communicates a complex message of contested land ownership in Zimbabwe. There is a pronounced legacy of colonial toponymy that testifies to the British Imperial occupation of the land and the ideologies behind colonisation. This presence of colonial toponymy many years after independence is an ironic confirmation of the indelible legacy of British colonialism in Zimbabwe. The findings show a clear recasting of the discourses of violence and racial hostility, but also reveal an interesting trend of toponymic syncretism where colonial names are retained and used together with new names. / Linguistics and Modern Languages / D. Litt. et Phil. (Linguistics)

This study analyses the different social variables that conditioned the naming of schools during the colonial period in Zimbabwe (1890-1979). The study collects and analyses the names given to schools in Salisbury (including Chitungwiza), Umtali and Fort Victoria the colonial period in Zimbabwe. The study adopts Geosemiotics, a theory propounded by Scollon and Scollon (2003), together with insights from Semantics, Semiotics and Pragmatics in the analysis of school names. Critical Discourse Analysis is used a method of data analysis. One of the main findings of the study is that place names are discourses of power which are used to express and legitimise power because they are part of the symbolic emblems of power. It was possible to ‘read’ the politics during the colonial period in Zimbabwe through the place names used in the colonial society. Both Europeans and Africans made conscious efforts to imbue public places with meanings. Overally, people who have access to power have ultimate control over place naming in any society. In this case, they manipulate place naming system in order to inscribe their own meanings and versions of history in the toponomastic landscape. The second finding is that place names are critical place-making devices that can be used to create imagined boundaries between people living in the same environment. Place names are useful discourses that index sameness and differences of people in a nation-state. Place names exist in interaction and kinship with other discourses in making places and imposing an identity on the landscape. Semiotics, Semantics and Pragmatics are instrumental in the appreciation of the meaning conveyed by school names. This study makes an important contribution to onomastic research in the sense that its findings can be generalised to other place naming categories during the colonial period in Zimbabwe. This study provides background information on how place naming was done during thecolonial period in Zimbabwe. This makes it significant because it provides insights on place naming in other states that went through the colonial experience, in Africa or elsewhere in the world. / African Languages

Cette étude aborde la conception de l'espace tunisien depuis l'Occident au croisement des notions territoriales Africa et Tunis, à travers la représentation cartographique à l'époque moderne du XVIe siècle au XVIIIe siècle, d'après des sources issues principalement des collections de la Bibliothèque nationale de France. Cette étude a pour ambition de proposer un travail d'investigation de l'image cartographique de l'espace tunisien en privilégiant deux approches : une approche structurale historiographique et une approche quantitative. L'objectif principal de la présente étude est de détecter les grandes phases historiques dans la représentation de l'espace tunisien, à partir d'un corpus assez dense. Je propose d'individualiser trois groupes d'images cartographiques caractérisées par des déformations similaires, qui me paraissent correspondre à des étapes importantes de l'évolution cartographique moderne ou encore à de grandes ruptures dans sa construction. Ces étapes correspondent à chaque fois à de nouveaux récits de voyages et par la suite à une évolution du regard. L'ensemble des cartes est représentatif non pas de l'édition cartographique mais de l'évolution des techniques et des connaissances géographiques. Les « cartes-modèles » ou encore les « cartes-mères » que j'identifie dans un premier temps, sont ensuite l'objet d'une expérimentation à partir de méthodes quantitatives. Cette approche, qui porte sur les déformations des surfaces, vise à une comparaison entre deux surfaces : une surface-source supposée « exacte » et une surface-image correspondant aux exemples historiques analysés. / This study deals with the concept of the Tunisian space, seen from the West as an intersection of the territorial concepts of Africa and Tunis, throughout the cartographical representation of the modern period, from the 16th to the 18th century. The study is essentially based on cartographic material from the collections of the French National Library. This thesis aims to investigate the cartographic representation of the Tunisian space through two main approaches: the first one is historiographical and structural at heart while the second is quantitative. The main objective of this present study is to detect the essential historical steps in the cartographic representation, from wide sources. So far, I suggest identifying three groups of cartographic images, which are characterized by similar deformations. These images correspond with important stages of the modern cartographical image or even major breaks in its construction, connected with new travel accounts and an evolving representation. Ali maps are not only representative of the cartographical edition but also of the development of technology and geographical knowledge. The « model-maps » along with « mother­maps », once identified, are subsequently subjected to experiments, through a quantitative approach. This approach, which centers on surfaces deformations, is meant to establish a comparison between two types of surfaces: one, the source-surface, which is presumed to be accurate and the other, the image-surface, which corresponds with the historical examples we consider.