[pt] Este trabalho apresenta a adaptação da abordagem Quality by Design (QbD) visando aplicá-la na garantia da qualidade de um sistema de medição para uso clínico destinado à localização de objetos estranhos metálicos não-ferromagnéticos inseridos no corpo humano. O Target Product Profile (TPP) foi identificado em associação às funcionalidades do sistema, atendendo a preceitos biometrológicos como: desempenho metrológico, baixo custo de fabricação e operação, baixa complexidade, portabilidade e segurança/inocuidade. Determinaram-se os Critical Quality Attributes (CQAs) do sistema, que devem ser controlados ao longo do seu desenvolvimento para garantir sua qualidade. Identificaram-se os Critical Process Parameters (CPPs) e suas faixas de variação aceitáveis. Foi realizada uma análise de risco prévia entre CQAs e CPPs, determinando aqueles com maior relação de dependência, a fim de estabelecer as combinações adequadas para construir o Design Space (DS). Devido às caraterísticas dos dados obtidos nas primeiras etapas da implementação do QbD, empregou-se a inferência fuzzy entre os CPPs e CQAs com elevada dependência. Os resultados obtidos com a configuração do DS possibilitaram a determinação das faixas de operação aceitáveis dos CPPs, as quais garantem a adequação dos aspectos metrológicos do equipamento biomédico em desenvolvimento, contribuindo, para a confiabilidade da sua aplicação diagnóstica e terapêutica. / [en] This work presents the adaptation of the Quality by Design (QbD) approach aiming to apply it to the quality assurance of a measurement system for clinical use for locating non-ferromagnetic metallic foreign objects inserted in the human body. The Target Product Profile (TPP) was identified in association with the functionalities of the system, complying with biometrological precepts such as: metrological performance, low manufacturing and operating costs, low complexity, portability and safety. The Critical Quality Attributes (CQAs) of the system were determined, which must be controlled throughout its development to guarantee its quality. Critical Process Parameters (CPPs) and their acceptable ranges of variation were identified. A risk analysis was previous performed between CQAs and CPPs, determining those with a higher dependency ratio, in order to establish the appropriate combinations to construct the Design Space (DS). Due to the characteristics of the data obtained in the first stages of the implementation of QbD, fuzzy inference was used between CPPs and CQAs with high dependence. The results obtained with the DS configuration enabled the determination of the acceptable operating ranges of the CPPs, which ensure the adequacy of the metrological aspects of the biomedical equipment under development, contributing to the reliability of its diagnostic and therapeutic application.

[pt] Esta dissertação tem por objetivo o desenvolvimento de um transdutor magnético em configuração gradiométrica (gradiômetro), baseado nas características de fase da impedância de amostras sensoras de Magnetoimpedância Gigante (GMI), visando à medição de campos magnéticos de baixa intensidade em ambientes desprovidos de blindagem magnética. A metodologia empregada iniciou pela medição e análise das características de fase da impedância de duas amostras sensoras GMI, em função do campo magnético externo. Na sequencia, foi idealizado o circuito eletrônico do gradiômetro, o qual é responsável por excitar os elementos sensores e apresentar uma saída em tensão, proporcional ao gradiente de campo entre eles. As principais características do protótipo desenvolvido são detalhadas ao longo do texto e as previsões teóricocomputacionais são comparadas com os resultados experimentais obtidos. Por sua vez, as principais figuras de mérito do protótipo desenvolvido são detalhadamente analisadas, tais como: sensibilidade, linearidade, resposta em frequência, densidade espectral de ruído, resolução e distorção harmônica total. Também, avalia-se a distancia ótima de separação entre os elementos sensores empregados no gradiômetro, a fim de se otimizar a relação sinal-ruído. Os resultados indicam que o gradiômetro desenvolvido apresenta uma alta resolução, elevada sensibilidade, e linearidade, banda de passagem de até 1 kHz e baixa distorção harmônica. Por meio da comparação dos resultados obtidos pelo gradiômetro com os de um magnetômetro GMI, pode-se concluir que o gradiômetro propicia significativa atenuação da interferência magnética. Dessa forma, verifica-se que o dispositivo desenvolvido contribui para a medição de campos magnéticos de baixa intensidade, em ambientes ruidosos. / [en] This dissertation aims at developing a magnetic field transducer in gradiometric configuration (gradiometer), based on the impedance phase characteristics of Giant Magnetoimpedance (GMI) sensors, focusing on the measurement of low intensity magnetic fields in unshielded enviroments. The first step of the adopted methodology was measuring and analyzing the impedance phase characteristics of GMI sensors, as a function of the external magnetic field. After that, it was idealized the electronic circuit of the gradiometer, which is responsible by exciting the sensor elements and by presenting a voltage output, proportional to the magnetic field gradient between them. The main features of the developed prototype are detailed throughout the text and the theoreticalcomputational predictions are compared with the experimental results obtained. Furthermore, the most relevant figures of merit of the developed prototype are analyzed in detail, such as sensitivity, linearity, frequency response, spectral noise density, resolution and total harmonic distortion. Besides, the optimal separation between the two sensors used in the gradiometer is analyzed, aiming at improving the signal to noise ratio. The obtained results indicate that the developed gradiometer has a high resolution, high sensitivity and linearity, passband up to 1 kHz and low harmonic distortion. Comparing the gradiometer s performance results with the ones achieved with a GMI magnetometer leads to conclude that the gradiometer attenuates considerably the magnetic interference. In this way, it can be concluded that the developed device contributes to the measurement of low intensity magnetic fields in noisy environments.

[pt] Nesta dissertação são descritos o projeto, a implementação e os testes preliminares de um protótipo de transdutor de campo magnético em tensão, baseado no fenômeno da Magnetoimpedância Gigante (MIG) e caracterizado por uma configuração geométrica inovadora. O elemento sensor e o circuito eletrônico do transdutor foram idealizados e implementados de modo a se obter a maior sensibilidade possível a campos próximos e imunidade a campos remotos. Através das medidas de caracterização do elemento sensor e do circuito, foi possível obter uma sensibilidade estimada do transdutor, sendo esta aproximadamente 12 V/Oe, a qual já é comparável à de dois dos principais sensores magnéticos existentes, o fluxgate e o sensor de efeito Hall. O transdutor desenvolvido tem por principal aplicação, nesta pesquisa, a localização de corpos estranhos magnéticos no corpo humano, baseando-se em técnica já desenvolvida e testada para sensores SQUID. Para auxiliar a interpretação dos resultados experimentais, foi criado um modelo teórico do campo magnético associado a uma agulha e do sinal de saída do transdutor associado a este campo. Medições com uma agulha retilínea foram realizadas para se avaliar o comportamento do transdutor perante este campo magnético. Apesar da elevada sensibilidade, as medidas indicaram não- linearidade e baixa imunidade a campos uniformes. Contudo, independentemente das melhorias que possam ser feitas e que já foram identificadas, o transdutor desenvolvido já tem aplicações bastante promissoras, destacando-se por seu reduzido custo de fabricação e operação. / [en] In this dissertation, it is proposed the design of a magnetic field to voltage transducer based on the Giant Magnetoimpedance phenomenon (GMI), characterized by an innovative geometric configuration. In order to attain the best near-field sensibility and far-field immunity, the transducer`s sensitive element and electronic circuit were planned and implemented. By thoroughly characterizing them it was possible to obtain an estimate of the transducer`s sensibility, which is approximately 12 V/Oe. This value is comparable to those observed in two of the most important existing magnetic sensors: the fluxgate and the Hall effect sensor. The main application of the developed transducer is the localization of magnetic foreign bodies in humans, based on a previously developed and tested SQUID sensor technique. In order to provide a better interpretation of the experimental results, a theoretical model of the magnetic field associated with a needle and of the signal it generates in the transducer was created. Measurements with a needle were performed to analyze the behavior of the prototype, which has a high sensitivity, as expected, but presents strong hysteresis, lack of linearity and low immunity to uniform fields. However, despite the improvements that can still be done and have already been identified, the developed transducer has many promising applications, and has the advantage of reduced fabrication and operation costs.

Nous proposons deux caractérisations des arbres réguliers. La première est sémantique et s'appuie sur les types co-inductifs. La seconde est syntaxique et repose sur une représentation des arbres réguliers par des termes cycliques. Nous prouvons que ces deux caractérisations sont isomorphes.Ensuite, nous étudions le problème de la définition de morphisme d'arbres préservant la propriété de régularité. Nous montrons en utilisant le formalisme des transducteurs d'arbres, l'existence d'un critère syntaxique garantissant la préservation de cette propriété. Enfin, nous considérons des applications de la théorie des arbres réguliers comme la définition de l'opérateur de composition parallèle d'une algèbre de processus ou encore, les problèmes de décidabilité sur les arbres réguliers via une mécanisation d'un vérificateur de modèles pour un mu-calcul coalgébrique. Tous les résultats ont été mécanisés et prouvés corrects dans l'assistant de preuve Coq. / We propose two characterizations of regular trees. The first one is semantic and is based on coinductive types. The second one is syntactic and represents regular trees by means of cyclic terms. We prove that both of these characterizations are isomorphic. Then, we study the problem of defining tree morphisms preserving the regularity property. We show, by using the formalism of tree transducers, the existence of syntactic criterion ensuring that this property is preserved. Finally, we consider applications of the theory of regular trees such as the definition of the parallel composition operator of a process algebra or, the decidability problems on regular trees through a mechanization of a model-checker for a coalgebraic mu-calculus. All the results were mechanized and proved correct in the Coq proof assistant.

La présente étude a été réalisée dans le cadre d'une collaboration entre le groupe de recherche GREM3 du laboratoire LAPLACE de Toulouse et la société de recherche contractuelle SINAPTEC située à Lille. SINAPTEC conçoit et développe des systèmes ultrasonores piézoélectriques résonants pour un grand nombre d'applications industrielles et a pour volonté d'améliorer sa compréhension des phénomènes mis en jeu ainsi que les performances et les fonctionnalités de sa technologie actuelle. L'objectif de cette étude est d'exploiter la sensibilité des transducteurs piézoélectriques résonants afin de leur conférer une fonction de capteur en vue de mieux contrôler leur action sur le milieu à traiter par le suivi de l'évolution de l'impédance électromécanique. Actuellement, pour le pilotage et le contrôle des transducteurs US de puissance dédiés aux applications en milieu liquide - qui font l'objet de la présente étude - plusieurs difficultés se posent. Tout d'abord la première difficulté, inhérente à la nature même des transducteurs piézoélectriques de puissance, est la dérive de leurs caractéristiques avec l'échauffement. L'échauffement dans le transducteur provoque une dérive de sa fréquence de résonance et de ses propriétés mécaniques qui est partiellement solutionnée par un asservissement en fréquence (et/ou en puissance) mais il n'en reste pas moins qu'une dégradation des performances de l'actionneur est observée. La deuxième difficulté réside dans le fait que le transducteur plongé dans une charge liquide est difficile à contrôler car l'application des ondes ultrasonores de puissance dans ce milieu provoque l'apparition de microbulles de vapeur, c'est le phénomène de cavitation qui est extrêmement complexe et fortement non linéaire. L'objectif est donc de trouver une méthode simple, peu consommatrice en ressources pour être implémentée dans la nouvelle génération de générateurs électroniques de SINAPTEC et qui permette d'extraire des informations pertinentes sur le milieu liquide - comme l'intensité de la cavitation par exemple - mais aussi sur l'état du transducteur et son évolution pendant qu'il fonctionne à forte puissance dans des conditions normales d'utilisation. Le principe de la méthode proposée repose sur le calcul de l'impédance de charge du transducteur en fonctionnement et son suivi en « temps réel »par mesure des signaux électriques et à partir de ses caractéristiques à vide. Pour montrer la faisabilité d'une telle méthode, une modélisation analytique par le modèle des matrices de transfert ainsi qu'une modélisation numérique, à l'aide du logiciel ANSYS, ont été réalisées afin de qualifier l'effet de la charge liquide en régime stable et cavitant sur l'impédance électrique du transducteur. Deux transducteurs ont été modélisés : un système ultrasonore standard de SINAPTEC, classiquement utilisé pour les applications en milieu liquide, et un transducteur spécialement conçu pour être plus sensible à la charge et plus facilement pilotable. Cette modélisation a été complétée par des expérimentations afin de confirmer la faisabilité de la méthode en milieu cavitant. La modélisation ainsi que les expérimentations ont permis de confirmer que les propriétés du milieu liquide en contact avec le transducteur sont corrélées à l'impédance électrique de ce dernier (et à sa fréquence de résonance). De ce fait, il devient alors possible, en suivant/observant l'impédance électrique du transducteur, de déterminer certaines propriétés du milieu et ainsi permettre un meilleur suivi de l'action du transducteur sur sa charge. / This study is the result of a collaboration between the research group GREM3 of the LAPLACE Laboratory in Toulouse and SINAPTEC, a research company located in Lille. SINAPTEC designs and develops resonant piezoelectric ultrasonic systems for many industrial applications and wants to improve the performance and functionality of its current technology. The objective of this study is to exploit the sensitivity of resonant piezoelectric transducers to use them as sensors in order to better control their action on the medium to be treated by monitoring the evolution of their electromechanical impedance. ABSTRACT : Currently, several difficulties arise for the control of high power ultrasonic transducers dedicated to applications in liquid media - which are the subject of this study. The first difficulty - inherent in the nature of piezoelectric transducers- is the shift of their characteristics with heating. Heating in the transducer causes a drift of the resonance frequency and its mechanical properties which is partially solved by a frequency control loop, but a performance degradation of the actuator is still observed. The second difficulty lies in the fact that the transducer immersed in a liquid load is difficult to control because the application of high power ultrasonic waves in the medium generates micro-bubbles in the liquid: it is the phenomenon of cavitation, extremely complex and highly non-linear. The objective is to find a simple method, to be implemented in the next generation of electronic generators of SINAPTEC, that allows to extract relevant information on the liquid medium (such as the intensity of cavitation for instance) but also on the state of the transducer and its evolution during operation at high power under normal conditions of use. The principle of the proposed method is based on the calculation of the transducer load impedance while functioning by measuring electrical signals and using its unloaded characteristics. To show the feasibility of such an approach, the analytical model of the transfer matrices as well as a finite element model ( using ANSYS software) were implemented to characterize the effect of stable and cavitating liquid loads on the electrical impedance of the transducer. Two transducers were modeled: a standard ultrasound system of SINAPTEC, typically used for applications in liquid media, and a transducer specifically designed to be more sensitive to the load and more easily controllable. These model were complemented by experiments to confirm the feasibility of the method in a cavitating environment. Modeling and experiments have confirmed that the properties of the liquid in contact with the transducer are correlated with the electrical impedance of the latter (and its resonance frequency). Thus, it becomes possible to determine certain properties of the medium by monitoring the electrical impedance of the transducer and it should allow a better control of the action of the transducer on the load.

Ce travail de thèse est consacré au développement d'un capteur acoustique miniature à transduction capacitive destiné à être intégré dans un système RFID afin de dépasser certaines des limitations actuelles de ce dernier. La configuration originale du capteur acoustique étudié lui offre les avantages d'avoir une bonne performance tout en gardant une forme simple qui peut être aisément réalisée avec les techniques MEMS pour une production à grande échelle. Ce transducteur est constitué d'une membrane circulaire ou carrée et une électrode arrière centrée, de même forme mais de dimensions plus petites, séparées par une très fine couche de fluide, ainsi qu'une petite cavité située à la périphérie de l'électrode, de dimensions extérieures très proches de celles de la membrane. Le comportement de ce capteur est analysé en détail. Cette étude se base sur deux approches mathématiques originales (analytique et numérique), dont les résultats convergent malgré un niveau différent des hypothèses-simplificatrices sur lesquelles reposent ces deux modèles.Finalement, une méthode de réalisation du transducteur en technologie hybride, qui associe le procédé MEMS avec les techniques classiques des circuits imprimé, est présentée. Le prototype développé est aussi caractérisé expérimentalement et les résultats obtenus correspondent bien aux caractéristiques fournies par les modèles théoriques. / This work is devoted to the development of capacitive miniature acoustic sensor to be integrated in an RFID system in order to exceed some of its current limitations.The unusual configuration of the studied sensor offers the benefits of having a significant performance while keeping a simple form that can be easily achieved with standard MEMS techniques and thus successively marketed in perspective. This transducer consists of a circular or square membrane, a centered backing electrode with the same shape, but with smaller dimensions which define a thin fluid layer between them, and a small cavity at the periphery of the backing electrode whose external dimensions are very close to the ones of the membrane. The architecture of the developed sensor is the subject of a deep theoretical study of its behavior. This investigation is based upon two original mathematical approaches (analytical and numerical ones) whose results show a high convergence despite the different-levels of simplifying assumptions on which these models are based.Finally, the transducer is made with the use of a hybrid technology, that includes the MEMS process associated with conventional printed circuit manufacturing techniques, which is presented step by step. The developed prototype is characterized experimentally and the measured results correspond to the ones predicted by theoretical models.

abstract: Ionic liquids (ILs), or low-temperature liquid salts, are a class of materials with unique and useful properties. Made up entirely of ions, ILs are remarkably tunable and diverse as cations and anions can be mixed and matched to yield desired properties. Because of this, IL/water systems range widely—from homogeneous mixtures to multiphasic systems featuring ionic liquid/liquid interfaces. Even more diversity is added when particles are introduced to these systems, as hard particles or soft-matter microgels interact with both ILs and water in complex ways. This work examines both miscible ionic liquid/water mixture and two-phase, immiscible ionic liquid/water systems. Extensive molecular dynamics (MD) simulations are utilized in conjunction with physical measurements to inform theoretical understanding of the nature of these systems, and this theoretical understanding is related to practical applications—in particular, the development of a low-temperature liquid electrolyte for use in molecular electronic transducer (MET) seismometers, and particle self-assembly and transport at ionic liquid/liquid interfaces such as those in Pickering emulsions. The homogenous mixture of 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium iodide and water is examined extensively through MD as well as physical characterization of properties. Molecular ordering within the liquid mixture is related to macroscopic properties. These mixtures are then used as the basis of an electrolyte with unusual characteristics, specifically a wide liquid temperature range with an extremely low lower bound combined with relatively low viscosity allowing excellent performance in the MET sensor. Electrolyte performance is further improved by the addition of fullerene nanoparticles, which dramatically increase device sensitivity. The reasons behind this effect are explored by testing the effect of graphene surface size and through MD simulations of fullerene and a silica nanoparticle (for contrast) in [BMIM][I]/water mixtures. Immiscible ionic liquid/water systems are explored through MD studies of particles at IL/water interfaces. By increasing the concentration of hydrophobic nanoparticles at the IL/water interface, one study discovers the formation of a commingled IL/water/particle pseudo-phase, and relates this discovery to previously-observed unique behaviors of these interfaces, particularly spontaneous particle transport across the interface. The other study demonstrates that IL hydrophobicity can influence the deformation of thermo-responsive soft particles at the liquid/liquid interface. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Chemical Engineering 2016

Orientador: Walter Katsumi Sakamoto / Banca: Aparecido Augusto de Carvalho / Banca: Darcy Hiroe Fujii Kanda / Banca: Washington Luiz de Barros Melo / Banca: Mauro Henrique de Paula / Resumo: Apresenta-se nesse trabalho a preparação, caracterização e aplicação de um compósito na forma de filme com três concentrações diferentes de cerâmica, objetivando observar seu comportamento quando submetido a radiação ionizante (raios X) e não ionizante (infravermelho). Os compósitos são constituídos da cerâmica titanato de chumbo modificado com cálcio (PTCa) imersa em uma matriz polimérica constituída de poliéter éter cetona (PEEK). Os filmes foram obtidos por prensagem a quente. O compósito foi caracterizado com a medida do coeficiente piezoelétrico (d33), variando a concentração de cerâmica, a temperatura de polarização, a intensidade de campo aplicado e o tempo de polarização. Posteriormente, foi medido o coeficiente piroelétrico, perda dielétrica e permissividade dielétrica, para as três concentrações de cerâmica proposta. Para a amostra com 60% de cerâmica foi determinado a figura de mérito piroelétrica (FOM) e finalmente, nessa fase de caracterização, foi determinado o campo coercivo e a polarização remanescente através da curva de histerese ferroelétrica. Os resultados obtidos revelaram que a atividade piezo e piroelétrica do compósito são compatíveis com outros compósitos existentes e cerâmicas. Após a caracterização, o compósito foi submetido à radiação infravermelha próximo e à radiação X na faixa de ortovoltagem. Os resultados encontrados revelaram que o compósito responde na faixa de radiação ionizante e não ionizante revelando uma opção interessante como sensor. / Abstract: The present work is regarding to preparation and characterization of a ceramic/polymer composite film with three different ceramic loadings. The target was to observe the composite behavior when ionizing (X-ray) and non-ionizing (infrared) radiations was applied on it. The composites were made of calcium modified lead titanate (PTCa) ferroelectric ceramic immersed in poly(ether-ether-ketone) (PEEK) polymer matrix by hot pressing the powders mixture. Characterization was made using the longitudinal piezoelectric coefficient (d33) measurement as a function of ceramic content, poling temperature, poling electric field and poling time. Pyroelectric coefficient, dielectric permittivity and dielectric loss, coercive field and remanent polarization were also measured. The pyroelectric figure of merit (FOM) for sample with 60 vol% of ceramic was determined. The values of piezo and pyroelectric coefficient obtained for this composite indicates that it is comparable with other composites reported in literature. The application of the composite as thermal transducer for near infrared and X-ray radiation showed a real possibility to use PTCa/PEEK composite film as radiation detector in a wide range of energy. / Doutor

Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:22:35Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2007-08-16Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T20:07:42Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 jesus_rm_me_ilha.pdf: 1779220 bytes, checksum: d4da2fb210cd7f8994e968a719e1fcc7 (MD5) / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / Nesta dissertação é apresentada uma aplicação web, dinâmica e interativa, para o controle e monitoramento de transdutores inteligentes conectados em rede de acordo com o padrão IEEE 1451. O ambiente está hospedado em um computador pessoal que desempenha as funções de um servidor web e da parte lógica de um processador com capacidade de operar em rede. O acesso aos transdutores da rede é realizado através de um módulo de interface para transdutores inteligentes, implementado em um dispositivo lógico programável. No desenvolvimento do MATIW 1451 utilizou-se somente plataforma operacional e linguagens de programação de domínio público, abertas e padronizadas como estabelece o comitê gestor do padrão IEEE 1451. O sistema foi testado em uma rede de transdutores contendo um sensor de temperatura e uma ventoinha e em uma rede de distribuição de água, contendo sensores de pressão, vazão e um redutor de pressão. / This paper presents an interactive and dynamic web application to control and monitor smart transducers connected in network according to the IEEE 1451 standart, named MATIW 1451. A personal computer acts as a web server and as the logical part of a NCAP (Network Capable Application Process). The transducers are accessed via a STIM (Smart Transducer Interface Module) implemented by a PLD (Programmable Logic Device). The tools used in the implementation of MATIW 1451 are all in public domain, open as defined by the 1451 committee, including the operating system, languages, libraries and API s. The system was tested in a network of transducers comprised by a temperature sensor and cooler, and also tested in a water distribution kit with pressure and flow sensors, and a pressure reducer.

Os termo eletretos piezelétricos de teflon FEP apresentam-se como elementos que podem competir em preço e funcionalidade com os transdutores atuais. Quando carregados impulsivamente, as folhas de teflon FEP retêm cargas elétricas superficiais por um período longo, superior a 500 anos. Excitados mecanicamente, resultam em um alto nível de sinal elétrico e, excitados eletricamente, retornam a energia em deformação mecânica. O processo de fabricação projetado envolve a produção de um transdutor piezelétrico com uma densidade superficial de carga uniforme, através da formação de vacúolos gasosos formados sobre a superfície do filme polimérico. Os altos índices piezelétricos dos transdutores fabricados são confirmados por um sistema de medição estático, também projetado e desenvolvido neste trabalho, onde o coeficiente piezelétrico é medido de maneira direta. / The thermo-formed electrets of teflon FEP films are shown as elements that can be competitive either in price and functionality matters, as per the transducers being used nowadays. Once charged by an impulse voltage, the teflon FEP sheets keep the superficial electric charges for long periods, up to 500 years. Mechanically excited, they result in a high electric signal and, once electrically excited, return in a mechanical deformation. The projected manufactory process includes the production of a piezoelectric transducers with uniformly charged superficial density, though the formation of gaseous vacuoles over the polymeric film surface. The high piezoelectric levels of the manufactured transducers are confirmed by a static measurement system, also projected and developed in this same work, where the piezoelectric coefficient is measured by a direct way.