L'interaction entre une onde de choc plane et un nuage de gouttes d'eau homogène, monodisperse est étudiée dans un tube à choc. Les influences de la fraction volumique d'eau, αd(1 %, 0.3 % et 0.1%), rapport du volume d'eau sur le volume du nuage, de la hauteur du nuage Hd (70 cm, 40 cm et 15 cm), du diamètre des gouttes φd (250 µm et 500 µm ) et du nombre de Mach M (1.3 et 1.5) sont étudiées pour des fractions volumiques inférieures au pour cent. Lors de cette interaction, la pression en paroi du tube à choc est mesurée et la visualisation du nuage est obtenue par une méthode ombroscopique directe. Une évolution temporelle caractéristique de la pression induite par la propagation d'une onde de choc dans un tel milieu, est mise en évidence. Cette allure, diffère significativement de celle obtenue avec un nuage constitué de particules solides: la fragmentation des gouttes en est responsable. Une zone où la pression diminue directement après le pic de pression est alors observée aux stations de mesure localisées dans le nuage. L'atténuation de la surpression est mise en évidence: elle peut atteindre 80% du pic de pression mesuré sans nuage. Dans la partie numérique de ce travail, deux modèles de fragmentation sont implémentés, comparés et validés dans un code de calcul monodimensionel, instationnaire, Eulérien appliqué aux écoulements dilués (αd<1 %). On montre que la formulation du taux de production des gouttes selon le taux d'accroissement soit de leur nombre, soit de leur diamètre doit être utilisée respectivement soit avec, soit sans la prise en compte l'étape de déformation de la fragmentation. / The interaction between a planar shock wave and an both homogeneous and monodispersed droplet water cloud is studied in a shock tube. The effects of the water volume fraction αd (1% %, 0.3 % et 0.1%), ratio between the volume of water and the volume of the cloud, the height of the two-phase medium Hd (70 cm, 40 cm et 15 cm), the droplets diameters φd (250 µm et 500 µm ) and the Mach number M (1.3 et 1.5) are studied for a volume fraction smaller than one per cent. During this interaction, the pressure is measured and the visualization of the cloud is obtained by direct shadowgraphy. A characteristic temporal evolution of the pressure induced by the propagation of the shock wave in such a mixture is highlighted. This behavior differs significatively from the one obtained with a solid particles cloud : the droplet atomization is responsible of this change. A zone where the pressure decreases directly after the pressure peak is observed at different stations located into the water cloud. The mitiagtion of the overpressure is shown: it can reach 80%of the pressure peak measured without cloud. In the numerical part, two fragmentation models are added, compared and validated in a comptutational, one dimensional, instationnary, Eulerien code in the case of dilute flows (αd<1 %). We show that the formulation of the production rate of droplets defined by the number of droplets growth, or the diameter droplet growth, must be used, respectively, with and without taking into account the deformation stage of the droplet breakup. Thus, the numerical results are in good agrement with those obtained experimentally.

Une colonne de séparation d'air réalise un écoulement liquide-gaz à contre courant dans une structure complexe, le garnissage. Au sein de ce garnissage, l'écoulement du liquide est du type film drainé par gravité, alors que l'écoulement du gaz est turbulent. La fonction de ces contacteurs est de développer une surface d'échange interfaciale aussi grande que possible pour favoriser le transfert d'un composé chimique de la phase liquide vers la phase vapeur (et inversement) tout en offrant des pertes de charge raisonnables. Ces dispositifs sont constitués par l'assemblage de plaques métalliques ondulées, avec ou sans perforations, où deux plaques adjacentes sont respectivement inclinées d'un angle et son opposé par rapport à l'axe de la colonne. Ce type de contacteur peut être considéré comme un milieu poreux bi-structuré avec un taux de porosité élevé. Les écoulements peuvent être décrits à deux échelles : une échelle du pore et une échelle macroscopique. A cause de cette double structuration, la modélisation macroscopique des écoulements dans ce type de structure reste un problème difficile. En particulier, les mécanismes macroscopiques qui entraînent l'étalement d'un jet dans les garnissages sont incompris. Par ailleurs, une difficulté de modélisation supplémentaire est due aux effets liés à la turbulence. Au cours de cette thèse, nous avons développé, à partir d'une méthode de changement d'échelle, un modèle complet pour simuler les écoulements et le transfert de matière dans les colonnes équipées de garnissages structurés. Notre étude se focalise sur les trois points suivants. Premièrement, nous avons obtenu, à l'aide d'une prise de moyenne volumique, une loi de Darcy-Forchheimer qui inclue les effets de la turbulence. Ensuite, pour modéliser la dispersion radiale du liquide dans la colonne, nous avons trouvé pratique de séparer la phase liquide en deux films distincts, qui s'écoulent sur chaque plaque ondulée selon des directions préférentielles différentes. Ces phases fictives ne sont pas indépendantes puisque de la matière peut passer de l'une à l'autre au niveau des points de contact entre les feuilles ondulées. Finalement, nous avons proposé un modèle macroscopique pour simuler le transport d'espèces chimiques dans un système diphasique, multiconstituants. Tous les paramètres effectifs qui apparaissent dans ce modèle sont évalués à partir de solutions analytiques ou numériques de l'écoulement à la petite échelle. Les résultats de simulation ont été comparés avec succès à des mesures expérimentales obtenues en laboratoire ou sur pilote industriel. / Structured packings play a large role in chemical engineering processes involving gasliquid separation such as air distillation unit or CO2 absorption columns. Such structures maximize the exchange surface between gas and liquid while pressure drops remain low enough. Generally, the columns are operated in the counter-current flow mode : a liquid gravity film is sheared by the turbulent flow of a gas phase. The packings are made of an assembly of corrugated sheets where two adjacent sheets are respectively inclined by an angle and the opposite of this angle from the vertical axis. We can apprehend such a device as a bi-structured porous medium with high porosity defining two scales of description : a pore-scale and a macro-scale assimilated to the packing scale. Due to this peculiar structured geometry, the flow modeling from a macroscopic point of view, remains a challenging problem that has to be overcome to design enhanced devices. In particular, the macroscopic phenomena that leads to the spreading of a liquid point source at the top of a packing are still unknown, and the classical two-phase flow models in porous media failed to properly catch the liquid distribution within the column. Moreover, turbulence effects lead to additional difficulties. We developed a comprehensive mathematical model based on a multi-scale analysis to simulate gas-liquid flow through the distillation columns. We investigate three main points. First, we derived a Darcy-Forchheimer law that includes turbulence effects using the method of volume averaging. Then, to model the liquid spreading, we found convenient to split the liquid phase into two fictitious phases flowing along each sheet with a preferential direction. Moreover, these phases are not (except perhaps at very low saturation) completely independent since adjacent sheets are in contact and the liquid can flow from one sheet to the other. Finally, we proposed a macro-scale dispersion model to simulate two-phase, multicomponent transport in structured packing. All the effective properties that appear in this model are evaluated from either simulations or analytical solutions of the flow at the pore-scale. Simulation results have been successfully compared to laboratory-scale experiments and industrial-scale measurements.

L'allumage et le réallumage de haute altitude présentent de grandes difficultés dans le cadre des chambres de combustion aéronautiques. Le succès d'un allumage dépend de multiples facteurs, des caractéristiques de l'allumeur à la taille des gouttes du spray en passant par le niveau de turbulence au point d'allumage. Déterminer la position optimale de l'allumeur ou le potentiel d'allumage d'une source d'énergie donnée à une position donnée sont ainsi des paramètres essentiels lors du design de chambre de combustion. Le but de ces travaux de thèse est d'étudier l'allumage forcé des chambres de combustion aéronautiques. Pour cela, des Simulation numériques aux Grandes Echelles (SGE) d'écoulements diphasiques réactifs sont utilisées et analysées. Afin de les valider, des données expérimentales issues du banc MERCATO installé à l'ONERA Fauga-Mauzac sont utilisées. Cela permet dans un premier temps de valider la méthodologie ainsi que les modèles utilisés pour les SGE diphasiques évaporantes avant leur utilisation dans d'autres conditions d'écoulement. Le cas diphasique réactif statistiquement stationnaire est ensuite comparé aux données disponibles pour évaluer les modèles en condition réactives. Ce cas est étudié plus en détail à travers l'analyse de caractéristiques de la flamme. Celle-ci semble être le théâtre de régimes de combustion très différents. On note aussi que la détermination de la méthode numérique la plus appropriée pour le calcul d'écoulements diphasiques n'est pas évidente. De plus, deux méthodes numériques différentes peuvent donner des résultats en bon accord avec l'expérience et pourtant avoir des modes de combustion différents. Les capacités de la SGE à correctement calculer un écoulement diphasique réactif étant validé, des SGE du phénomène transitoire d'allumage sont effectuées. La sensibilité observée expérimentalement de l'allumage aux conditions initiales, i.e. à l'instant de claquage, est retrouvé par les SGE. L'analyse met en évidence le rôle prépondérant de la dispersion du spray dans le développement initial du noyau de flamme. L'utilisation des SGE pour calculer les séquences d'allumage fournie de nombreuses informations sur le phénomène d'allumage, cependant d'un point de vue industriel, cela ne donne pas de résultat optimal, à moins de ne tester toutes les positions, ce qui rendrait le coût CPU déraisonnable. Des alternatives sont donc nécessaires et font l'objet de la dernière partie de ces travaux. On propose de dériver un critère local d'allumage, donnant la probabilité d'allumage à partir d'un écoulement diphasique (air et carburant) non réactif instationnaire. Ce modèle est basé sur des critères liés aux différentes phases menant à un allumage réussi, de la formation d'un premier noyau à la propagation de la flamme vers l'injecteur. Enfin, des comparaisons avec des données expérimentales sur des chambres aéronautiques sont présentées et sont en bon accord, indiquant que le critère d'allumage proposé, couplé avec une SGE d'écoulement diphasique non réactif, peut être utilisé pour optimiser la puissance et la position du système d'allumage. / Ignition and altitude reignition are critical issues for aeronautical combustion chambers. The success of ignition depends on multiple factors, from the characteristics of the igniter to the spray droplet size or the level of turbulence at the ignition site. Finding the optimal location of the igniter or the potential of ignition success of a given energy source at a given location are therefore parameters of primary importance in the design of combustion chambers. The purpose of this thesis is to study forced ignition of aeronautical combustion chambers. To do so, Large Eddy Simulations (LES) of two-phase reacting flows are performed and analyzed. First, the equations of the Eulerian formalism used to describe the dispersed phase are presented. To validate the successive LES, experimental data from the MERCATO bench installed at ONERA Fauga-Mauzac are used. It allows to validate the two-phase evaporating flow LES methodology and models prior to its use to other flow conditions. The statistically stationary two-phase flow reacting case is then compared to available data to evaluate the model in reacting conditions. This case is more deeply studied through the analysis of the characteristics of the flame. This last one appears to experience very different combustion regimes. It is also seen that the determination of the most appropriate methodology to compute two-phase flow flame is not obvious. Furthermore, two different methodologies may both agree with the data and still have different burning modes. The ability of the LES to correctly compute burning two-phase flow being validated, LES of the transient ignition phenomena are performed. The experimentally observed sensitivity of ignition to initial conditions, i.e. to sparking time, is recovered with LES. The analysis highlights the major role played by the spray dispersion in the development of the initial flame kernel. The use of LES to compute ignition sequences provides a lot of information about the ignition phenomena, however from an industrial point of view, it does not give an optimal result, unless all locations are tested, which brings the CPU cost to unreasonable values. Alternatives are hence needed and are the objective of the last part of this work. It is proposed to derive a local ignition criterion, giving the probability of ignition from the knowledge of the unsteady non-reacting two-phase (air and fuel) flow. This model is based on criteria for the phases of a successful ignition process, from the first kernel formation to the flame propagation towards the injector. Then, comparisons with experimental data on aeronautical chambers are done and show good agreement, indicating that the proposed ignition criterion, coupled to a Large Eddy Simulation of the stationary evaporating two-phase non-reacting flow, can be used to optimize the igniter location and power.

Ce travail de thèse s'inscrit dans le cadre d'un projet de recherche industriel visant à améliorer les méthodes et les outils de simulation du comportement thermohydraulique et vibratoire dans les générateurs de vapeur des centrales nucléaires, en présence de colmatage. Le colmatage des générateurs de vapeur est un phénomène de déposition de matières au niveau d'interstices, appelés passages foliés, qui perturbe la libre circulation de l'écoulement appartenant au circuit secondaire. L'objectif de ces travaux de thèse est de disposer d'un modèle permettant de simuler ce phénomène dans l'intégralité du générateur de vapeur à l'échelle du sous-canal du faisceau de tubes. Le modèle proposé se décompose en deux étapes au niveau de chaque passage folié : une étape de déposition des particules, et une étape de consolidation du dépôt par précipitation d'espèces solubles. Une méthode inverse d'assimilation de données a été développée pour ajuster ce modèle sur les différentes observations issues du retour d'expérience disponible à EDF. Les résultats de simulation sont comparables aux données mesurées sur sites d'exploitation pour les générateurs de vapeur étudiés. L'impact du colmatage sur l'écoulement se caractérise par l'apparition de survitesses en partie supérieure du générateur de vapeur à l'origine d'instabilités vibratoires des tubes, et par la diminution du taux de recirculation. Par ailleurs, les résultats de simulation confirment qu'une augmentation du pH dans l'ensemble du circuit secondaire semble une solution intéressante pour atténuer le phénomène de colmatage. Ce remède est actuellement envisagé sur le parc nucléaire français. / In nuclear power plants, corrosion product deposits in the secondary side of steam generators may result in tube support plate flow blockage. Flow blockage is a deposit at the inlet of tube support plate flow holes. It may induce high velocity zones in the secondary flow, then vibrations and tube cracks in some cases. The main objective of this work is to model and simulate this deposit phenomenon in the whole steam generator. A new deposit model has been also developed and implemented in the frame of THYC. THYC is the EDF's reference code for the modelling of 3D two-phase thermal-hydraulic phenomena at the subchannel scale. The deposit model is defined by two main steps : particle deposition, and strengthening process due to soluble species precipitation in the pores of particle deposits. It is calibrated on blockage rates observed in steam generators using an inverse method also developed in this work. The relevance of this model is tested by comparing the simulation results to the actual levels of flow blockage observed in some nuclear plants. The main impact of flow blockage on the secondary flow is localized at the upper tube support plate and may induce tube vibrations. Moreover the simulation results underline the pH dependence of flow blockage phenomenon. A pH elevation of the secondary flow is one of the remedies currently considered on EDF's nuclear fleet.

<div>In order to better understand and quantify the effect of instabilities in systems utilizing flow boiling heat transfer, the present study explores dynamic results for pressure drop, mass velocity, thermodynamic equilibrium quality, and heated wall temperature to ascertain and analyze the dominant modes in which they oscillate. Flow boiling experiments are conducted for a range of mass velocities with both subcooled and saturated inlet conditions in vertical upflow, vertical downflow, and horizontal flow orientations. High frequency pressure measurements are used to investigate the influence of individual flow loop components (flow boiling module, pump, pre-heater, condenser, etc.) on dynamic behavior of the fluid, with fast Fourier transforms of the same used to provide critical frequency domain information. Conclusions from this analysis are used to isolate instabilities present within the system due to physical interplay between thermodynamic and hydrodynamic effects. Parametric analysis is undertaken to better understand the conditions under which these instabilities form and their impact on system performance. Several prior stability maps are presented, with new stability maps provided to better address contextual trends discovered in the present study.</div><div>Further, this study utilizes experimental results for vertical upflow boiling of FC-72 in a rectangular channel with finite inlet quality to investigate Density Wave Oscillations (DWOs) and assess their potential impact on design of two-phase systems for future space missions. High-speed flow visualization image sequences are presented and used to directly relate the cyclical passage of High and Low Density Fronts (HDFs and LDFs) to dominant low-frequency oscillations present in transient pressure signals commonly attributed to DWOs. A methodology is presented to determine frequency and amplitude of DWO induced pressure oscillations, which are then plotted for a wide range of relevant operating conditions. Mass velocity (flow inertia) is seen to be the dominant parameter influencing frequency and amplitude of DWOs. Amplitude of pressure oscillations is at most 7% of the time-averaged pressure level for current operating conditions, meaning there is little risk to space missions. Reconstruction of experimental pressure signals using a waveform defined by frequency and amplitude of DWO induced pressure fluctuations is seen to have only moderate agreement with the original signal due to the oversimplifications of treating DWO induced fluctuations as perfectly sinusoidal in nature, assuming they occur at a constant frequency value, and neglecting other transient flow features. This approach is nonetheless determined to have potential value for use as a boundary condition to introduce DWOs in two-phase flow simulations should a model be capable of accurately predicting frequency and amplitude of oscillation.</div><div>Additionally, this study presents a new mechanistic model for Density Wave Oscillations (DWOs) in vertical upflow boiling using conclusions drawn from analysis of flow visualization images and transient experimental results as a basis from which to begin modeling. Counter to many prior studies attributing DWOs to feedback effects between flow rate, pressure drop, and flow enthalpy causing oscillations in position of the bulk boiling boundary, the present instability mode stems primarily from body force acting on liquid and vapor phases in a separated flow regime leading to liquid accumulation in the near-inlet region of the test section, which eventually departs and moves along the channel, acting to re-wet liquid film along the channel walls and re-establish annular, co-current flow. This process was modeled by dividing the test section into three distinct control volumes and solving transient conservation equations for each, yielding predictions of frequencies at which this process occurs as well as amplitude of associated pressure oscillations. Values for these parameters were validated against an experimental database of 236 FC-72 points and show the model provides good predictive accuracy and capably captures the influence of parametric changes to operating conditions.</div><div>Also, this study shows analysis of pressure signals in condensing systems reveal the presence of relevant oscillatory phenomena during flow condensation as well, which may impact performance in applications concerned with precise system control. Towards this end, the present study presents results for oscillatory behavior observed in pressure measurements during flow condensation of FC-72 in a smooth circular tube in vertical upflow, vertical downflow, and horizontal flow orientations. Dynamic behavior observed within the test section is determined to be independent of other components within the flow loop, allowing it to be isolated and interpreted as resulting from physical aspects of two-phase flow with condensation. The presence of a peak oscillatory mode (one of significantly larger amplitude than any others present) is seen for 72% of</div><div>vertical upflow test cases, 61% of vertical downflow, and 54% of horizontal flow. Relative intensities of this peak oscillatory mode are evaluated through calculation of Q Factor for the corresponding frequency response peak. Frequency and amplitude of peak oscillatory modes are also evaluated. Overall, vertical upflow is seen to exhibit the most significant oscillatory behavior, although in its maximum case amplitude is only seen to be 7.9% of time-averaged module inlet pressure, indicating there is little safety risk posed by oscillations under current operating conditions. Flow visualization image sequences for each orientation are also presented and used to draw parallels between physical characteristics of condensate film behavior under different operating conditions and trends in oscillatory behavior detected in pressure signals</div><div>Further, the present work outlines a new methodology utilizing temperature and pressure measurements to identify condensation flow regimes. For vertical upflow condensation, amplitude of dynamic temperature and pressure oscillations are shown to clearly indicate transition from counter-current flow regimes (i.e., falling film, oscillating film, flooding) to annular, co-current flow (climbing film flow regime). In horizontal flow condensation, standard deviation between multiple thermocouple measurements distributed around the tube circumference was calculated at all axial (stream-wise) measurement locations. High values of standard deviation are present for stratified flow (stratified flow, wavy-stratified, plug flow), while axisymmetric flow regimes (i.e., slug flow, annular flow) yield significantly lower values. Successful development of this technique represents a valuable contribution to literature as it allows condensation flow regime to be identified without the often-costly restriction of designing a test section to allow optical access. Identified flow regimes in both vertical upflow and horizontal flow orientations are compared to regime maps commonly found in the literature in pursuit of optimum performing maps.</div><div>Finally, the present study aims to better analyze the influence of body force on flow condensation heat transfer by conducting tests at multiple orientations in Earth’s gravity. Dielectric FC-72 is condensed in a smooth stainless-steel tube with 7.12 mm diameter and 574.55 mm condensing length by counterflow of cooling water across the outer surface of the tube. Test conditions span FC-72 mass velocities of 50.3 – 360.3 kg/m2s, test section inlet pressures of 127.0 – 132.1 kPa, and test section inlet thermodynamic equilibrium qualities of 0.13 – 1.15. A subset of data gathered corresponding to axisymmetric, annular condensation heat transfer is identified and a detailed methodology for data reduction to calculate heat transfer coefficient presented. Uncertainty analysis is also presented and indicates channel average heat transfer coefficients are calculated within ±3.6% to ±26.7% (depending on operating conditions). Analysis of parametric trends for condensation heat transfer reveals the dominant influence of mass velocity (flow inertia), secondary influence of vapor mass fraction (thermodynamic equilibrium quality), and strong dependence on orientation (body force) at low mass velocities. At higher mass velocities results for all orientations investigated begin to converge, indicating body force independent annular condensation heat transfer is achieved. Separated Flow Model predictions of vertical downflow condensation heat transfer provide reasonable agreement with experimental results, evidence by a Mean Absolute Error (MAE) of 31.2%. Evaluation of condensation heat transfer correlations for horizontal flow reveal most correlations struggle for cases with high liquid content. Specific correlations are identified for superior accuracy in predicting the measured data.</div>

[pt] Uma técnica óptica não intrusiva foi desenvolvida para fornecer imagens instantâneas do filme líquido em escoamento anular horizontal ar-água. Imagens instantâneas das seções longitudinais e tranversais do escoamento revelaram o comportamento dinâmico do filme de líquido ao redor do tubo. A técnica PLIF – Planar Laser Induced Fluorescence – foi utilizada para separar a luz emitida pelo filme daquela (mais intensa) refletida na interface ar-água. A seção de testes utilizada foi fabricada em material com índice de refração próximo ao da água, o que permitiu que regiões muito próximas às paredes fossem estudadas sem distorções ópticas apreciáveis. Imagens longitudinais do filme de líquido foram capturadas utilizando uma câmera de alta velocidade sincronizada com um laser de alta taxa de repetição de pulsos. Foram realizados testes com frequências de aquisição de 250 e 3000 Hz. Um algoritmo computacional foi especialmente desenvolvido para medir automaticamente a posição da interface ar-água em cada imagem. A espessura de filme líquido foi medida em duas posições axiais em cada imagem, gerando dados para a variação temporal da espessura do filme de líquido em duas posições diferentes. As velocidades de propagação das ondas de líquido foram calculadas através da correlação cruzada dos sinais de espessura de filme em função do tempo das duas posições axiais. O espectro de frequência das ondas foi obtido a partir do sinal transiente de espessura do filme de líquido capturado. Os resultados obtidos permitiram estudar a dependência das propriedades do filme líquido com os parâmetros globais do escoamento, tais como as velocidades superficiais de gás e líquido. O trabalho realizado também implementou uma técnica de visualização transversal, empregando para isso duas câmeras digitais de alta velocidade em uma montagem estereoscópica. O laser de alta repetição foi montado de modo que seu feixe iluminasse a seção tranversal do tubo. Imagens obidas com as duas câmeras foram distorcidas usando um alvo de calibração e um polinômio para correção das imagens. Estas imagens distorcidas foram unidas para reconstruir a forma completa do filme de líquido na seção tranversal do tubo em função do tempo. Os resultados obtidos com a técnica estereoscópica desenvolvida constituem-se em uma contribuição original na área de medição de escoamentos bifásicos. Comparações com os resultados disponíveis na literatura indicam que o presente trabalho fornece resultados com níveis de incerteza experimentais equivalentes a outras técnicas bem estabelecidas. Os resultados obtidos com as técnicas desenvolvidas forneceram informações úteis para auxiliar o entendimento do comportamento dinâmico do filme de líquido em escoamentos bifásicos anulares. / [en] A non-intrusive optical technique was employed to provide time-resolved images of the lower portion of the liquid film of horizontal annular flow of air and water, revealing the interfacial wave behavior. Time-resolved images of the pipe cross section revealed the dynamics of the complete liquid film around the pipe wall. The planar laser induced fluorescence technique (PLIF) was implemented to allow for the optical separation of the light emitted by the film from that (more intense) scattered by the air-water interface. The visualization test section was fabricated from a tube material which has nearly the same refractive index as water, what allowed for the visualization of the liquid film at regions very close to the pipe wall. Longitudinal images of the liquid film were captured using a high speed digital video camera synchronized with a high repetition rate laser. Data sets were collected with sampling camera frequencies ranging from 250 to 3000 Hz. A specially developed image processing algorithm was employed to automatically detect the position of the air-water interface in each image frame. The thickness of the liquid film was measured at two axial stations in each processed image frame, providing time history records of the film thickness at two different positions. Wave velocities were measured by cross-correlating the amplitude signals from the two axial positions. Wave frequency information was obtained by analyzing the time-dependent signals of film thickness recorded. The results obtained allowed for the verification of the variation of the liquid film characteristics with global flow parameters, such as the liquid and gas flow superficial velocities. For the film cross section observations, two high speed digital video cameras were used in a stereoscopic arrangement. The high repetition rate laser had its laser sheet mounted so as to illuminate a pipe cross section. Images from the left and right cameras were distorted by the use of a calibration target and an image correction algorithm. Distorted images from each camera were then joined to yield the complete instantaneous cross section image of the liquid film. Comparisons with results from different techniques available in literature indicate that the present technique presents equivalent accuracy in measuring the liquid film properties. The stereoscopic technique developed is an original contribution of the present work to the set of experimental techniques available for the study of two-phase flows. Time–resolved images of longitudinal and cross section views of the film were recorded and analyzed, what constitutes in valuable information for the understanding of the dynamics of the liquid film in horizontal annular flow.

: Ce travail concerne l'écoulement inertiel en milieu poreux rencontré dans diversessituations telles que les écoulements autour des puits pour la récupération pétrolière, lesécoulements dans les réacteurs catalytiques, etc. En régime stationnaire, les différents modèlesmacroscopiques pour décrire ces écoulements inertiels (non-linéaires) demeurent encore sujetsà débat. Ces modèles consistent en une loi de Darcy corrigée de termes dont la dépendancevis à vis de la vitesse de filtration relève du régime d'écoulement. Dans ce travail, une attentionparticulière est portée tout d'abord à l'étude numérique (DNS), sur des structures modèles, de lalimite de stationnarité de l'écoulement monophasique newtonien qui correspond à la premièrebifurcation de Hopf, caractérisée par un nombre de Reynolds critique. La connaissance de cettelimite est cruciale puisqu'elle détermine le domaine de validité des modèles macroscopiquesstationnaires pertinents. Dans un deuxième temps, la dépendance de la déviation (inertielle) àla loi de Darcy par rapport aux propriétés de la structure poreuse (forme des grains, désordre)et à l'orientation de l'écoulement est étudiée dans le cas de structures 2D et 3D. Les propriétéseffectives de la structure à l'échelle macroscopique sont déterminées à partir de la résolutionnumérique des problèmes de fermeture associés au modèle macroscopique obtenu par prisede moyenne des équations de Navier-Stokes. Afin de déceler l'origine de cette déviation et sesdifférentes formes, l'évolution de la structure microscopique de l'écoulement en fonction dunombre de Reynolds est analysée. Plus particulièrement, le rôle des zones de recirculation, etles corrélations avec la courbure des lignes de courant multipliée par l’énergie cinétique localeet la variation de l’énergie cinétique le long de ces lignes sont étudiés. La dernière partie dutravail est consacrée à une étude numérique, toujours dans des situations modèles, de ladéviation à la loi de Darcy généralisée dans le cas de l'écoulement diphasique inertiel. / This work focuses on inertial flow in porous media encountered in differentindustrial situations such as flow around wells in oil recovery, flow in filters and in columns ofreactors for chemical engineering, etc. In stationary flow regime, the different macroscopicmodels describing inertial (non-linear) flow are still discussed. These models consist in theDarcy’s law with correction extra terms whose dependence upon the filtration velocity is afunction of the flow regime. In this work, a particular attention is attributed first to the numericalinvestigation (DNS), on model structures, of the limit of one phase Newtonian stationary flowwhich corresponds to the first Hopf bifurcation, characterized by a critical Reynolds number.The knowledge of this limit is crucial since it establishes the ranges of validity of the relevantmacroscopic stationary models. In a second step, the dependence of the deviation (inertial)from Darcy’s law on the properties of the porous structure (grains shape, disorder) and on theorientation of the flow is analyzed in 2D and 3D situations. The effective properties of thestructure and the flow at the macroscopic scale are obtained from the numerical resolution ofthe closure problems associated to the macroscopic model obtained from an up-scalingprocedure (volume averaging) of the Navier-Stokes equations. In order to identify the origin ofthe deviation and its different forms, the variation of the microscopic flow structure with theReynolds number is analyzed. More specifically, the role of the recirculation zones, and thecorrelations with flow streamlines curvature multiplied by the local kinetic energy and thevariation of the kinetic energy along these lines are studied. The last part of the work isdedicated to a numerical investigation of the deviation from the generalized Darcy’s law in thecase of two phase inertial flow.

[pt] Na produção de gás e petróleo em campos de águas profundas são comumente encontrados trechos verticais de dutos (risers) na aproximação final à plataforma. Nesta configuração, podem ocorrer escoamentos bifásicos no regime de golfadas severas (severe slug) que gera alternância na produção da fase gasosa e líquida. Esta alternância é caracterizada por períodos de produção de gás sem líquido seguido de altas taxas de produção de ambas as fases. O regime severo de golfadas é geralmente descrito em quatro fases: formação da golfada, produção da golfada, rompimento da golfada pela fase gás e fluxo reverso do que restou da fase líquida. Este regime induz o escoamento a condições mais extremas do que um outro regime, visto que resultam em um aumento de pressão no duto durante a formação da golfada e em um aumento na taxa de produção durante a expulsão da mesma. O presente trabalho consiste da simulação numérica do regime de golfadas severas para um trecho de tubulação horizontal seguido de outro vertical, assim como apresentar uma análise de um regime estatisticamente permanente. A previsão do escoamento é obtida utilizando-se uma formulação unidimensional baseada no modelo de Drift. A freqüência das golfadas é comparada com outros estudos numéricos da literatura, obtendo-se uma concordância bastante satisfatória. / [en] In the gas and oil offshore deep water production is usual to find risers in Production Unit final approach. Regarding to this configuration, two-phase flows can evolve to a severe slug regime that create gas and liquid alternate production. This cyclic behavior is characterized by periods of gas production followed by very high liquid and gas flow rates. The severe slug flow regime is normally described as occurring in four phases: slug formation, slug production, blowout, and liquid fallback. This flow regime introduces new conditions that can be found in other regimes because of the pressure increase during the slug formation and the large flow rates during the slug production. The present work consists of the numerical simulation of the severe slug flow regime into a horizontal pipeline section followed by a vertical section, as well as to present an statistically steady state analysis. The flow prediction is obtained through a one-dimensional formulation based on the Drift Flux Model. The slug frequency is compared with other numerical studies available in the literature, and a very satisfactory agreement is obtained.

A presente pesquisa envolve um estudo teórico-experimental da transferência de calor e da perda de carga na condensação e no escoamento monofásico de fluidos refrigerantes halogenados no interior de lâminas com micro canais. Os ensaios consideram o fluido refrigerante puro R-134-a e a mistura quase azeotrópica R-410A. As lâminas estudadas envolvem micro canais de seção quadrada de Dh = 1,214 mm e de seção circular de Dh = 1,494 mm. Os ensaios de líquido subresfriado compreendem velocidades mássicas de 390 a 1360 Kg/sm2 para um temperatura de saturação de 40ºC e subresfriamento de 10ºC. Por sua parte, os ensaios foram realizados considerando um fluxo de calor constante de 5 kW/m2, títulos de vapor de 0,1 a 0,9, velocidades mássicas de 410 a 1135 kg/sm2, temperaturas de saturação de 40 a 50ºC e misturas óleo-refrigerante com concentrações de óleo em massa de 0,25 e 0,45%. Para cada condição de ensaio foram avaliados o coeficiente de transferência de calor e a queda de pressão por atrito na lâmina ensaiada. Os resultados para escoamento monofásico apresentaram consistência com relação às correlações típicas aplicáveis a transferência de calor e perda de carga para regime turbulento em tubos convencionais, apresentando, em média, valores de 12% superiores. Na maioria das condições de ensaios de condensação, segundo mapas de escoamento disponíveis na literatura, foi identificado o domínio do padrão estreitamento anular. Este comportamento foi aferido pelos resultados experimentais de perda de carga mostrando dependência quase exclusiva do parâmetro de Martinelli, e o mecanismo conectivo como principal mecanismo de transferência de calor, característico no padrão anular. Os resultados de condensação foram correlacionados a partir de abordagens empíricas em função do parâmetro de Martinelli e o conceito de velocidade mássica equivalente. Assim como, a partir de uma abordagem semi-empírica considerando um modelo anular que permite avaliar os mecanismos principais de transferência de calor e quantidade de movimento, avaliando a espessura do filme de líquido na parede do canal. Finalmente, os resultados experimentais e os obtidos a partir das correlações desenvolvidas são comparados com estudos disponíveis na literatura relativos a lâminas com micro canais. / This project involves a theoretical-experimental study of heat transfer and pressure drop in condensation and single phase flow of halogen refrigerants in microchannel tubes. The tests include the pure refrigerant R-134a and quasi azeotropic mixture R-410A. The microchannel tubes tested include one with square ports of Dh = 1,214 mm and other with circular port of Dh = 1,494 mm. The subcooled liquid tests considered the mass velocities of 390 to 1360 kg/sm2, the saturation temperature of 40ºC and subcooled of 10ºC. The condensing tests considered a constant heat flux of 5 kW/m2, vapor quality of 0,15 to 0,9, mass velocities of 410 to 1135 kg/sm2, saturation temperature of 40 to 50ºC and oil-refrigerant mixtures with oil mass concentrations of 0,25 and 0,45%. For each test condition was evaluated the coefficient of heat transfer and frictional pressure drop in the microchannel tube. The single phase results agree with typical correlations used in conventional tubes to evaluate the heat transfer and pressure drop in turbulent flow, even though the most of experimental date are 12% higher. The most of flow patterns in condensation were identified as annular using the flow patterns maps available on literature. This behavior was verified through pressure drop results, which show exclusive dependence on Martinelli Parameter. The heat transfer results show that the main heat transfer mechanism was convective, typical in annular flow. The results of condensation were correlated from empirical approachs using the Martinelli parameter and the equivalent mass velocity concept. And, also a semi-empirical approach modeling the annular flow to evaluate the mechanism of heat transfer through the liquid film around the wall of the tube. Finally, the experimental results and the results obtained through the models were compared with correlations referred to microchannels available on the literature.

Aplicações industriais envolvendo escoamentos multifásicos são inúmeras, sendo que, o aprimoramento de alguns desses processos pode resultar em um grande salto tecnológico com significativo impacto econômico. O estudo numérico dessas aplicações é imprescindível, pois fornece informações precisas e mais detalhadas do que a realização de testes experimentais. Um grande desafio é o estudo numérico de escoamentos viscoelásticos multifásicos envolvendo altas taxa de elasticidade, devido às instabilidades causadas por altas tensões elásticas, grandes deformações, e até mudanças topológicas na interface. Assim, a investigação numérica desse tipo de problema exige uma formulação precisa e robusta. No presente trabalho, um novo resolvedor de escoamentos bifásicos envolvendo fluidos complexos é apresentado, com particular interesse em escoamentos com altas taxas de elasticidade. A formulação proposta é baseada no método Volume-of-fluid (VOF) para representação da interface e no algoritmo Continuum Surface Force (CSF) para o balanço de forças na interface. A curvatura e advecção da interface são calculados via métodos geométricos para garantir a precisão dos resultados. Métodos de estabilização são utilizados quando números críticos de Weissenberg (Wi) são encontrados, devido ao famoso problema do alto número de Weissenberg (HWNP). O método da projeção, combinado com um método implícito para solução da equação da quantidade de movimento, são discretizados por um esquema de diferenças finitas em uma malha deslocada. Problemas de benchmarks foram resolvidos para acessar a precisão numérica da formulação em diferentes níveis de complexidade física, tal como representação e advecção da interface, influência das forças interfaciais, e características reológicas do fluido. A fim de demonstrar a capacidade do novo resolvedor, dois problemas bifásicos transientes, envolvendo fluidos viscoelásticos, foram resolvidos: o efeito de Weissenberg e o reômetro extensional (CaBER). O efeito de Weissenberg ou rod-climbing effect consiste em um bastão que gira dentro de um recipiente com fluido viscoelástico e, devido às forças elásticas, o fluido escala o bastão. Os resultados foram comparados com dados teóricos, numéricos e experimentais, encontrados na literatura para pequenas velocidades angulares. Além disso, resultados obtidos com altas velocidades angulares (alta elasticidade) são apresentados com o modelo Oldroyd-B, em que escaladas muito elevadas foram observadas. Valores críticos da velocidade angular foram identificados, e para valores acima foi observada a ocorrência de instabilidades elásticas, originadas pela combinação de tensões elásticas, curvatura interfacial, e escoamentos secundários. Até onde sabemos, numericamente, essas instabilidades nunca foram capturadas antes. O CaBER consiste no comportamento e colapso de um filamento de fluido viscoelástico, formado entre duas placas paralelas devido às forças capilares. Esse experimento envolve consideráveis dificuldades, dentre as quais podemos destacar a grande influência das forças capilares e a diferença de escalas de comprimento no escoamento. Em grande parte dos resultados encontrados na literatura, o CaBER é resolvido por modelos simplificados em uma dimensão. Resultados obtidos foram comparados com tais resultados da literatura e com soluções teóricas, apresentando admirável precisão. / Industrial applications involving multiphase flow are numerous. The improvement of some of these processes can result in a major technological leap with significant economic impact. The numerical study of these applications is essential because it provides accurate and more detailed information than conducting experiments. A challenge is the numerical study of high viscoelastic multiphase flows due to instabilities caused by the high elastic tension, large deformations and even topological changes in the interface. Thus the numerical investigation of this problem requires a robust formulation. In this study a new two-phase solver involving complex fluids is presented, with particular interest in the solution of highly elastic flows of viscoelastic fluids. The proposed formulation is based on the volume-of-fluid method (VOF) to interface representation and continuum surface force algorithm (CSF) for the balance of forces in the interface. The curvature and interface advection are calculated via geometric methods to ensure the accuracy of the results. Stabilization methods are used when critical Weissenberg numbers are found due to the famous high Weissenberg number problem (HWNP). The projection method combined with an implicit method for the solution of the momentum equation are discretized by a finite difference scheme in a staggered grid. Benchmark test problems are solved in order to access the numerical accuracy of different levels of physical complexities, such as the dynamic of the interface and the role of fluid rheology. In order to demonstrate the ability of the new resolver, two-phase transient problems involving viscoelastic fluids have been solved, theWeissenberg effect problem and the extensional rheometer (CaBER). The Weissenberg effect problem or rod-climbing effect consists of a rod that spins inside of a container with viscoelastic fluid and due to the elastic forces the fluid climbs the rod. The results were compared with numerical and experimental data from the literature for small angular velocities. Moreover results obtained for high angular velocities are presented using the Oldroyd-B model, which showed high climbing heights. Critical values of the angular speed have been identified. For values above a critical level were observed the occurrence of elastic instabilities caused by the combination of elastic tension, interfacial curvature and secondary flows. To our knowledge, numerically these instabilities were never captured before. The CaBER consists of the behavior and collapse of a viscoelastic fluid filament formed between two parallel plates due to capillary forces. This experiment involves considerable difficulties, among which we can highlight the great influence of the capillary forces and the difference of the length scales in the flow. In much of the results found in the literature, the CaBER is solved by simplified models. The results were compared with results reported in the literature and theoretical solutions, which showed remarkable accuracy.