Thesis: M.S., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, 1976 / Includes bibliographical references. / M.S. / M.S. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science

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Thesis (M.App.Sc.) - Carleton University, 2007. / Includes bibliographical references (p. 123-128). Also available in electronic format on the Internet.

L’utilisation des ultrasons pour l’imagerie présente plusieurs avantages : elle est extrêmement sure car ellen'utilise pas de radiations ionisantes et ne présente pas d'effets néfastes sur la santé. D’autre part, elle donne desrésultats d’excellente qualité avec un coût relativement faible. Historiquement, les matériaux piézoélectriques et leurscomposites ont été très tôt utilisés pour la génération d’ultrasons. Les transducteurs fabriqués à partir de ces matériauxdominent actuellement le marché des sondes ultrasonores. Cependant, pour certaines applications, ils ne peuvent pasêtre utilisés pour des raisons de dimensionnement et de limitations dues aux propriétés des matériaux. Une solutionpeut être apportée par l’utilisation des transducteurs ultrasonores capacitifs micro-usinés dits CMUTs. Ces dernierssuscitent un intérêt croissant dans le milieu de l’imagerie ultrasonore et sont considérés comme une alternativepotentielle et viable aux transducteurs piézoélectriques. Cette nouvelle technologie CMUTs est caractérisée par uneplus large bande passante, une sensibilité élevée, une facilité de fabrication et une réduction des coûts de production.Cette thèse est consacrée à la mise en place d’un certain nombre d’outils théoriques et expérimentaux permettant lamodélisation/conception, la fabrication et la caractérisation de transducteurs CMUTs à membrane circulaire pourl’émission des ultrasons. Nous commençons par développer des outils de simulation à base de calculs par élémentsfinis, permettant la compréhension et la modélisation du comportement électromécanique des CMUTs pour laconception et le dimensionnement des cellules élémentaires et des réseaux. Nous proposons par la suite un nouveauprocédé de fabrication de transducteurs CMUTs basé sur le collage anodique d’une couche de silicium monocristallind’épaisseur fixe d’une plaquette de SOI sur un substrat de verre. L’évolution du procédé de fabrication est détailléepour chaque étape technologique en soulignant à chaque fois les améliorations/modifications apportées pour unefiabilité et une répétitivité accrue associées à une connaissance des limites de faisabilité. Dans la dernière partie de cetravail, on s’intéresse à la mise en œuvre de plusieurs plateformes expérimentales permettant différentescaractérisations électromécaniques statiques et dynamiques des dispositifs CMUTs fabriqués / The use of ultrasound imaging has several advantages: it is extremely safe because it does not use ionizingradiation and has no adverse effects on health. It gives excellent quality results with a relatively low cost. Historically,piezoelectric materials and their composites have been early used for ultrasound generation. Transducers made fromthese materials dominate currently the ultrasonic probes market. However, for some applications, they can’t bebecause of design and limitation reasons due to material properties. A solution can be provided by the use ofcapacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducers CMUTs. A growing interest in the field of the ultrasound imaging isshown to this technology considered as a potential and viable alternative to piezoelectric transducers andcharacterized by a wide bandwidth, high sensitivity, ease of manufacture and reduce production costs. This thesis isdevoted to the establishment of a number of experimental and theoretical tools for the modeling/design, fabricationand characterization of circular membrane CMUTs transducers for ultrasound transmission. We begin by developingsimulation tools based on finite elements method in order to understand/model the CMUTs electromechanicalbehavior for the design and dimensioning of elementary cells and networks. Thereafter, we introduce a new CMUTtransducers fabrication process based on the anodic bonding a fixed thickness single crystal silicon layer of a SOIwafer on a glass substrate. The process evolution is detailed for each technological step highlighting everyimprovements/changes introduced for increased reliability and repeatability associated with an increased knowledgeof feasibility limits. In the last part of this work, we focus on the implementation of several experimental platformsallowing different static and dynamic electromechanical characterizations of the fabricated CMUTs devices.

The goal of this research was to develop acoustic sensors and actuators for microfluidic applications. To this end, capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducers (cMUTs) were developed which generate guided acoustic waves in fluid half-spaces and microchannels. An interdigital transducer structure and a phased excitation scheme were used to selectively excite guided acoustic modes which propagate in a single lateral direction. Analytical models were developed to predict the geometric dispersion of the acoustic modes and to determine the sensitivity of the modes to changes in material and geometric parameters. Coupled field finite element models were also developed to predict the effect of membrane spacing and phasing on mode generation and directionality. After designing the transducers, a surface micromachining process was developed which has a low processing temperature of 250C and has the potential for monolithically integrating cMUTs with CMOS electronics. The fabrication process makes extensive use of PECVD silicon nitride depositions for membrane formation and sealing. The fabricated interdigital cMUTs were placed in microfluidic channels and demonstrated to sense changes in fluid sound speed and flow rate using Scholte waves and other guided acoustic modes. The minimum detectable change in sound speed was 0.25m/s, and the minimum detectable change in flow rate was 1mL/min. The unique nature of the Scholte wave allowed for the measurement of fluid properties of a semi-infinite fluid using two transducers on a single substrate. Changes in water temperature, and thus sound speed, were measured and the minimum detectable change in temperature was found to be 0.1C. For fluid pumping, interdigital cMUTs were integrated into microchannels and excited with phase-shifted, continuous wave signals. Highly directional guided waves were generated which in turn generated acoustic streaming forces in the fluid. The acoustic streaming forces caused the fluid to be pumped in a single, electronically-controlled direction. For a power consumption of 43mW, a flow rate of 410nL/min was generated against a pressure of 3.4Pa; the thermodynamic efficiency was approximately 5x10-8%. Although the efficiency and pressure head are low, these transducers can be useful for precisely manipulating small amounts of fluid around microfluidic networks.

Les transducteurs ultrasonores capacitifs micro-usinés (CMUT) représentent aujourd’hui une réelle alternative aux technologies piézoélectriques dans le domaine de l’imagerie échographique médicale. Au cours des années, les procédés de fabrication des transducteurs se sont enrichis en vue d’améliorer leurs performances. A contrario le choix du substrat, généralement en silicium, a été peu étudié. Il est cependant reconnu que le support contribue à la signature acoustique du dispositif ultrasonore. L’objectif de ces travaux de thèse a été d’intégrer une couche de silicium poreux afin d’absorber une partie des ondes élastiques qui se propagent dans le substrat et interfèrent avec le signal acoustique émis. Nous montrons alors qu’il été possible de réaliser une couche de silicium poreux en face arrière de composants, sur plaquettes 6 pouces, sans dégrader leurs performances. Finalement, par l’intermédiaire de caractérisations acoustiques et des signatures impulsionnelles des transducteurs, nous révélons le potentiel prometteur de ce matériaux pour la réalisation de milieu arrière atténuant dédié à la transduction ultrasonore. / Capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducers (CMUT) have emerged as a potential alternative to traditional piezoelectric transducers for ultrasound imaging. Along the years, CMUT processes have been evolved to enhance the device performances. In the meantime, no particular attention was paid on the silicon substrate, even if it is well-known that it could contribute to the transducer efficiency. The aim of this PhD thesis was to use porous silicon as a backing material for ultrasonic transducers to absorb a piece of the acoustic wave propagating in the substrate and which induce crosstalks in the acoustic signal. We show that porous silicon layer can be obtained on the rear side of already processed wafers without any damage on the performances of capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducers. Finally, by means of acoustic characterizations and the transducer electroacoustic responses, we reveal the potential interest of porous silicon as backing material for ultrasonic transducers.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-08-17T14:52:53Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Will Ribamar Mendes Almeida.pdf: 650603 bytes, checksum: 3c389113f5c609a86b502fc0489341f4 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2004-09-30 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Anemometers are instruments, simply, for measuring the velocity of fluids and, in some cases, its direction. Particularly, the measurement of the air velocity extends to applications like: windmills, wind tunnels, electricity generation from Aeolian energy and meteorology. Among the most used methods for the wind velocity determination, the method based on the transit time of ultrasonic waves is stressed for being more suitable to the measurement of the velocity of gases, and which is based on the time required for an ultrasonic wave emitted from a transmitter to reach a receptor. Among the techniques for implementing the transit time the Difference of Time (DT) and Difference of Phase (DP) are emphasized, and both are addressed ins this work. A comparative study, with experimental verification, between the two techniques (DT and DP) is presented in this work, using techniques for compensating the effects of temperature variation on the sound velocity. It was taken into consideration the implementation of the measurement circuits and the propagation of uncertainties with respect to the variables that interfere in the measurement process. From the analyses carried out, the most suitable method for measuring the wind velocity was chosen, and a prototype was developed based on this method. The most suitable method is the Difference of Phase, because the observed uncertainty, in both simulations and experiments, was much smaller than for the DT method. / Anemômetros são instrumentos que, de maneira simplificada, têm a finalidade de medir velocidade de fluidos e, em alguns casos, a sua direção. Em particular a medição da velocidade do ar estende-se a aplicações como: moinhos de vento, túneis de vento, geração de energia elétrica a partir da energia eólica e meteorologia. Dentre os métodos mais comuns de determinação da velocidade de vento destacam-se os que se baseiam no Tempo de Trânsito de ondas ultra-sônicas, por serem mais adequadas para medição de velocidade de gases, e que se baseiam no tempo levado para uma onda ultra-sônica emitida por um transmissor atingir um receptor. Dentre as técnicas usadas para implementar o método do Tempo de Trânsito destacamse a Diferença de Tempo (DT) e a Diferença de Fase (DF), ambas abordadas neste trabalho.. Um estudo comparativo, com verificação experimental, entre as duas técnicas (DT e DF) é apresentado neste trabalho, usando técnicas para compensar os efeitos da variação da temperatura na velocidade do som. Foi levado em consideração na comparação à implementação dos circuitos de medição e a propagação de incertezas com relação as variáveis que interferem no processo de medição. A partir das análises realizadas escolheu-se o método mais apropriado para estimação da velocidade do vento, tendo sido desenvolvido um protótipo baseado nesse método. O método mais apropriado foi o da diferença de fase, pois foi observado, tanto por simulação quanto por experimentação, que a incerteza na estimação da velocidade do vento foi bem maior para o método DT.

Dans cette thèse nous proposons de développer un système d’imagerie ultrasonore innovante de micro- défauts basé sur l’utilisation conjointe de techniques d’acoustique non linéaire et du concept de "transducteur à cavité chaotique". Ce transducteur correspond à la combinaison d’une céramique piézoélectrique collée sur une cavité de forme chaotique et du principe de retournement temporel. La faisabilité et les performances de ce nouveau système sont explorées par des simulations numériques. Des paramètres optimaux d’utilisation pour une implémentation expérimentale sont proposés. Une grande partie des travaux menés dans le cadre de cette thèse se concentre sur le développement d’outils numériques permettant l’amélioration de telles techniques d’imagerie. Un schéma d’éléments finis de type Galerkin Discontinu (GD) est étendu à l’élastodynamique non linéaire. Un type de zone absorbante parfaitement adaptée, appelée "Nearly Perfectly Matched Layer" (NPML) a aussi été développé. Dans le cas de matériaux orthotropes, comme des problèmes de stabilité apparaissent, un mélange de NPML et de zone atténuante, dont on contrôle la proportion respective, est introduit afin de stabiliser les NPML. Une validation expérimentale du concept de "transducteur à cavité chaotique" pour la focalisation dans un milieu solide, réverbérant ou non, en utilisant une seule source est réalisée. Les méthodes de retournement temporel et de filtre inverse sont présentées et comparées. La démonstration expérimentale qu’un "transducteur à cavité chaotique" peut être utilisé conjointement avec les méthodes d’inversion d’impulsion afin de réaliser une image de non linéarités localisées est présentée / In this thesis we propose the development of an innovative micro-damage imaging system based on a combination of Nonlinear Elastic Wave Spectroscopy techniques and “chaotic cavity transducer” concept. It consists of a combination of a PZT ceramic glued to a cavity of chaotic shape with the time reversal principle. The feasibility and capabilities of these new ideas is explored by numerical simulations, and optimal operational parameters for experimental implementation are suggested based on the modelling support. A large part of the research work conducted in this thesis is concentrated on the development of numerical simulation tools to help the improvement of such nonlinear imaging methods. A nodal Discontinuous Galerkin Finite Element Method (DG-FEM) scheme is extended to nonlinear elasto-dynamic including source terms. A Perfectly Matched Layer absorbing boundary condition well adapted to the DG-FEM scheme, called Nearly Perfectly Matched Layer (NPML), is also developed. In the case of orthotropic material as stability problems appear, a mixture of NPML and sponge layer, with a controllable ratio of these two kinds of absorbing layers, is introduced. The experimental validation of “chaotic cavity transducer” to focalize in reverberant and non-reverberant solid media with only one source is made. Classical time reversal, inverse filter and 1 Bit time reversal process are discussed and compared. The experimental demonstration of the use of a “chaotic cavity transducer”, in combination with the pulse inversion and 1-bit methods, to obtain an image of localized nonlinearity is made. This opens the possibility for high resolution imaging of nonlinear defects

Air-borne ultrasonic transducers are optimised to achieve a maximal sound pressure in a frequency range around 100 kHz. Moreover, the radiation of a high acoustic power is desired, which requires a large transducer area. Within this dissertation the ultrasonic transducers are, therefore, optimised to operate in the resonance mode. Using this operating point the maximal force is fed into the transducer while it is charged with the lowest loss possible. Many applications of air-borne ultrasound need a sufficient bandwidth in addition to a high sound pressure, that s why the swinging mass of the transducer has to be minimised. For these reasons, air-borne capacitive and piezoelectric film transducers take centre stage of these examinations. New network models of the stripe membrane and the pre-stressed stripe plate are derived to optimise these ultrasonic transducers. Besides its mechanical tension and its bending stiffness, the new network model of the pre-stressed and pressure loaded stripe plate takes also the stiffness caused by the shape of the plate into account. The examined transducers achive a maximal piston velocity around 1 m/s. / Ultraschallwandler für Anwendungen in Luft werden zur Bereitstellung eines maximalen Schalldrucks im Frequenzbereich um 100 kHz optimiert. Sie sollen außerdem die Abstrahlung einer großen Schallleistung zulassen, was eine große Wandlerfläche voraussetzt. Deshalb werden in dieser Arbeit die Ultraschallsender für den Resonanzbetrieb optimiert, wo man die maximale Krafteinspeisung bei minimalen Verlusten einstellt. Viele Anwendungen von Ultraschall in Luft benötigen neben einem hohen Schalldruckpegel auch eine ausreichende Bandbreite, wozu die schwingende Masse der Wandler zu minimieren ist. Deshalb stehen kapazitive und piezoelektrische Folienwandler im Resonanzbetrieb im Vordergrund der Untersuchungen. Zur Optimierung dieser Ultraschallsender werden die Netzwerkmodelle der Streifenmembran und der gespannten Streifenplatte abgeleitet. Neben der mechanischen Spannung und der Biegesteifigkeit berücksichtigt das Netzwerkmodell der gespannten und statisch druckbelasteten Streifenplatte die Formversteifung. Die untersuchten Wandler erreichen eine maximale Kolbenschnelle um 1 m/s.

[pt] A medição da velocidade de fluidos tem relevância considerável em aplicações industriais e científicas, nas quais medições com baixa incerteza são geralmente requeridas. Nesta tese, tem-se como objetivo projetar e modelar um sistema de medição de velocidade de vento utilizando fusão de dados das informações dos tempos de trânsito obtidas pelas técnicas de detecção de limiar e diferença de fase. Para este propósito, este trabalho é composto por duas partes principais. Na primeira parte, apresenta-se uma análise da propagação de incertezas das técnicas de detecção de limiar e diferença de fase considerando duas estruturas para a medição da velocidade do vento, e faz-se a comparação das faixas de medição e suas incertezas associadas para cada estrutura de medição. Na segunda parte deste trabalho, faz-se um estudo das técnicas de fusão de dados aplicadas a instrumentação e medição, identificandose duas técnicas principais baseadas em: (a) estimação de máxima probabilidade (MLE – Maximum Likelihood Estimation), (b) relação de compatibilidade fuzzy e operadores OWA (Order Weighted Average) com agregação parcial. Em seguida, estas técnicas de fusão são aplicadas para a estimação do tempo de trânsito, considerando-se várias medições independentes do tempo de trânsito obtidas pelas técnicas de detecção de limiar e diferença de fase. Finalmente, realiza-se uma análise da incerteza quantificando-se a incerteza de cada medição sobre o resultado final de fusão. Apresenta-se um estudo de caso englobando estas duas partes do trabalho, desenvolvendo-se o projeto e modelagem de um instrumento de medição de velocidade do vento com baixa incerteza, considerando-se as incertezas associadas, e o uso de técnicas adequadas de fusão de dados para prover informações com maior exatidão e confiabilidade. Resultados experimentais são realizados em um túnel de vento de baixa velocidade com o objetivo de verificar a consistência dos estudos teóricos apresentados. / [en] Flow speed measurement has considerable relevance in industrial and scientific applications, where measurements with low uncertainty are required. In this work, a system for wind speed measurement using ultrasonic transducers is designed and modelled. This system makes use of data fusion techniques for the time-of-flight estimation, combining independent information provided by the threshold detection and phase difference methods. For this purpose, this work consists of two main parts. The first part presents an analysis of uncertainty and error propagation concerning the threshold detection and phase difference techniques and considering two structures for the wind speed measurement. Measurement ranges are associated uncertainties are then compared for each of those estrutures. In the second part of this work, data fusion techniques applied to instrumentation and measurement are studied; two main techniques are singled out: (a) Maximum Likelihood Estimation (MLE), (b) Fuzzy compatibility relation and Order Weighted Average (OWA) operators with partial aggregation. These fusion techniques are then applied to the time-of-flight estimation, by considering several independent measurements obtained through the threshold detection and phase difference techniques. Finally, uncertainty analysis is carried out by quantifying the influence of each independent measurement on the global fusion result. A case study is also presented, where an instrument for wind speed measurements with low uncertainty is designed and modelled. Appropriate techniques of data fusion aimed at improving accuracy and realiability are considered. Experiments are performed in a wind tunnel in order to verify the consistency of the results in view of the theoretical studies.