Submitted by Renata Lopes (renatasil82@gmail.com) on 2017-07-21T14:26:57Z No. of bitstreams: 1 marciodocarmobarbosaponciliorodrigues.pdf: 24085481 bytes, checksum: a2ce2552f002816f01354d228d257f85 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Adriana Oliveira (adriana.oliveira@ufjf.edu.br) on 2017-08-09T13:18:07Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 marciodocarmobarbosaponciliorodrigues.pdf: 24085481 bytes, checksum: a2ce2552f002816f01354d228d257f85 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-08-09T13:18:07Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 marciodocarmobarbosaponciliorodrigues.pdf: 24085481 bytes, checksum: a2ce2552f002816f01354d228d257f85 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014-11-20 / A gradativa substituição da atual frota de veículos de motor de combustão interna por veículos elétricos (VEs) pode ser vista como um importante fator para a melhoria das condições ambientais nos centros urbanos, uma vez que possibilita a redução das emissões de poluentes atmosféricos nocivos à saúde humana. Os conversores estáticos existentes no sistema de propulsão de veículos puramente elétricos e híbridos "plug-in" podem ser utilizados para funções adicionais, diferentes da tração elétrica. Com poucas adaptações nos circuitos eletrônicos do VE é possível integrar funções como recarga de baterias, geração distribuída de energia elétrica e compensação de reativos. Este tipo de aplicação é particularmente interessante no contexto de redes inteligentes de energia elétrica (smart grids). Esta integração de funcionalidades ao VE, além de permitir a redução de custos e economia de recursos naturais, poderá resultar em retorno financeiro aos proprietários destes veículos pela prestação de serviços auxiliares ao sistema elétrico. Neste trabalho é proposta a utilização de veículos elétricos na compensação de harmônicos de corrente e de potência reativa em instalações elétricas residenciais e comerciais, utilizando o próprio sistema de propulsão do VE para operar como filtro ativo de potência, o que pode ser realizado de forma simultânea à recarga do banco de baterias do VE ou durante seu uso como unidade de geração distribuída de ener-gia elétrica (operação no modo V2G, vehicle-to-grid). Sendo o padrão de conexão de VEs à rede de energia elétrica atualmente adotado pela maior parte dos fabricantes de automóveis elétricos baseado em alimentação monofásica (com possibilidade de alimen-tação bifásica), é explorada, neste trabalho, a utilização de um VE na compensação de cargas monofásicas e bifásicas, em condições típicas de instalações elétricas residenciais e comerciais, de forma compatível a tal padrão. A inclusão desta funcionalidade aos VEs pode contribuir para a redução do impacto da eletrificação veicular no sistema elétrico, pois com a diminuição do fluxo de potência reativa e harmônica na rede elé-trica, torna-se maior a sua capacidade disponível para transporte de potência ativa, facilitando o suprimento de energia a novas cargas (que podem ser os próprios VEs). / The gradual replacement of the current internal combustion engine vehicles by elec-tric vehicles (EVs) comes up as being an important factor to the improvement of urban centers environmental conditions, since it enables reduction on the emissions of atmo-spheric pollutants harmful to human health. Additional tasks, apart from traction, can be performed by battery and plug-in hybrid electric vehicle powertrain on-board power electronic converters. It is possible to integrate functions such as battery charge, electric distributed power generation and reactive power compensation with few modifications on the EV electronics circuitry. This kind of application is especially interesting under the context of smart grids. The integration of these additional functions to an electric vehicle is a very desirable feature, since it can result on cost reduction (in comparison to the separated implementation of the integrated functions) and revenue to the owner of the vehicle by providing ancillary services to the electric power system. This work proposes the application of electric vehicles on the compensation of cur-rent harmonic components and reactive power in residential and commercial electricity networks by means of the integration of a shunt active power filter (APF) into their powertrain electronics circuitry, which can simultaneously operate with the EV bat-tery pack charging or during its use as an electric distributed power generator unit (vehicle-to-grid, V2G, operation mode). Since the EV grid connection standard cur-rently adopted by electric automobiles manufacturers is based on a single-phase power supply system (with a possible two-phase power supply connection), this work focuses on the application of an electric vehicle in the compensation of single-phase and two-phase loads under residential and commercial electricity networks typical conditions, in order to meet the compliance to the requirements of such standard. The inclusion of this functionality to EVs can contribute on the reduction of vehicular electrification impact on the electric power system, since the decrease of reactive and harmonic power flow into the grid results in higher available capacity of active power flow in the power conductors, which allows to supply electricity to new electric loads (that can be the EVs themselves).

In the countries willing to follow an energy transition towards decarbonization, a strong emphasis is put on electrification. Carbon-free power production tends to rely more on intermittent renewable energies, bringing many uncertainties on the electricity output to the grid. The transportation sector aims to reach a high penetration of electric vehicles (EVs) on the road to overcome its fossil fuels dependency, adding an important load to charge their batteries. The V2G technology intends to alleviate these new issues by allowing the fleet of EVs to act like a storage system for the grid. This concept was proven to be mature but requires more pilot projects to build a greater consensus. The energy community BRF Stenberg, under construction in Hudiksvall, is willing to integrate V2G in its energy system. In this paper a model of the energy system for the whole community is built. Different types of V2G application are simulated and compared to a baseline. The constraints are formulated as a quasi-linear optimisation, where the cost from electricity purchase is minimized. A direct DCDC connection between PV production and EV charging is investigated, as well as the impact on the degradation of the batteries. The results show that it is necessary to integrate frequency regulation services to build a profitable project. The DC connection does not bring a significant benefit to the system. The battery degradation is proven to be a critical parameter that must be accounted for in the design of the system. / I de länder som är villiga att följa en energiomställning mot en koldioxidfri utveckling läggs stor vikt vid elektrifiering. Kolfri elproduktion tenderar att vara mer beroende av intermittenta förnybara energikällor, vilket medför många osäkerhetsfaktorer i fråga om elproduktionen till elnätet. Transportsektorn strävar efter att uppnå en hög penetration av elfordon på vägarna för att övervinna sitt beroende av fossila bränslen, vilket ger en viktig belastning för att ladda deras batterier. V2G-tekniken syftar till att lindra dessa nya problem genom att låta fordonsflottan fungera som ett lagringssystem för nätet. Konceptet har visat sig vara moget men kräver fler pilotprojekt för att skapa ett större samförstånd. Energisamfälligheten BRF Stenberg, som håller på att byggas i Hudiksvall, är villigt att integrera V2G i sitt energisystem. I den här artikeln byggs en modell av energisystemet för hela Energisamfälligheten. Olika grader av V2G-tillämpning simuleras och jämförs med en baslinje. Begränsningarna formuleras som en kvasilinjär optimering, där kostnaden för elinköp minimeras. En direkt DC-DC-anslutning mellan solcellsproduktion och fordonsladdning undersöks, liksom effekten på batteriernas nedbrytning. Resultaten visar att det är nödvändigt att integrera frekvensregleringstjänster för att bygga ett lönsamt projekt. Likströmsförbindelsen ger inte någon betydande fördel för systemet. Batteridegraderingen visar sig vara en kritisk parameter som måste beaktas vid utformningen av systemet.

Vehicle-to-Anything (V2X) est un terme générique qui explique l'utilisation de batteries de véhicules électriques pour obtenir une valeur supplémentaire lors de périodes de non-utilisation. Les services V2X génèrent des revenus de la batterie grâce à la charge dynamique monodirectionnelle (V1X) ou bidirectionnelle (V2X) afin de fournir des avantages au réseau électrique, de réduire la consommation énergétique des bâtiments et des maisons ou de fournir une alimentation de secours aux charges. Une méta-analyse du potentiel économique donne des résultats contradictoires avec la littérature et indique que la gestion de la consommation électrique, l'adéquation des ressources et le report de l’investissement dans le réseau ont plus de valeur que d’arbitrage sur les marchés d’énergie et réserve secondaire. Bien que je convienne que le développement soit pour et par le marché, je souligne que V2X se développera dans les limites du contexte réglementaire; les régulateurs ont donc un rôle de catalyseur à jouer.Une question importante est de savoir dans quelle mesure une utilisation supplémentaire de la batterie du véhicule affectera la capacité de la batterie au cours de sa durée de vie. Il est donc essentiel de comprendre les subtilités de la dégradation de la batterie pour estimer les coûts. Les batteries Li-ion sont des systèmes électrochimiques compliqués qui présentent deux phénomènes de dégradation simultanés, le vieillissement calendaire et le vieillissement cyclique. Dans les applications véhiculaires, le vieillissement du calendrier a tendance à être l’effet dominant de dégradation de la durée de vie, ce qui réduit le temps, élément le plus important de la dégradation; par conséquent, le coût de la dégradation dépend fondamentalement du temps.Une affirmation centrale de cette thèse est que le coût marginal de V2X n’est ni nul ni négligeable comme l’a accepté la littérature économique, mais dépend fortement de la dégradation de la batterie. Nous proposons ici une théorie des coûts marginaux V2X qui repose sur deux principes: 1.) il existe un coût d’efficacité associé au chargement de la batterie, et 2.) le véritable coût de dégradation de V2X prend en compte le coût d’opportunité, c’est-à-dire, la dégradation au-delà de ce qu’aurait été l’utilisation normale du véhicule.Avoir un concept clair du coût marginal de V2X, permet de comptabiliser et d’équilibrer correctement tous les coûts réels: coût de l’électricité, coûts d’efficacité du système et dégradation de la batterie. Cela permettra d’élaborer des stratégies de charge optimales et d’informer correctement les offres du marché de l’énergie. Il en résulte une compréhension plus nuancée des coûts marginaux. L’impact de la batterie V2X sur la vie de la batterie pourrait être considéré comme un coût, un bénéfice ou nul. Je conclus que le V2X peut offrir une valeur économique supérieure à celle précédemment entendue et que cette valeur supplémentaire sera réalisée grâce à l'amélioration simultanée de l'efficacité de la charge et de la réduction de la dégradation de la batterie EV. / Vehicle-to-Anything (V2X) is an umbrella term to explain the use of electric vehicle batteries to derive additional value during times of non-use. V2X services generate revenue from the battery asset through dynamic mono-directional (V1X) or bi-directional (V2X) charging to provide benefits to the electric grid, to reduce energy consumption of buildings and homes, or to provide back-up power to loads. A meta-analysis of economic potential gives results contradictory to the literature and indicates that Bill Management, Resource Adequacy, and Network Deferral are more valuable than Energy Arbitrage and Spinning Reserves. While I concur that development is of and by the market, I emphasize that V2X will develop within the constraints of the regulatory environment; therefore regulators have an enabling role to play.An important question is to what extent additional use of the vehicle battery will affect battery capacity over its lifetime, therefore understanding the intricacies of battery degradation is crucial to estimate costs. Li-ion batteries are complicated electrochemical systems which exhibit two concurrent degradation phenomena, Calendar Aging and Cycling Aging. In vehicular applications, Calendar Aging tends to be the dominating life degradation effect, which reduces to time being the most important component of degradation; therefore degradation cost is fundamentally time-dependent.A central claim of this dissertation is that gls{v2x} Marginal Cost is not zero nor negligible as the economic literature has accepted but is highly dependent on battery degradation. Herein, a gls{v2x} Marginal Cost Theory is proposed which is based on two main principles: 1.) there is an efficiency cost associated with charge operation, and 2.) the true gls{v2x} degradation cost takes opportunity cost into account, that is, only considers degradation beyond what would have been experienced by operating the vehicle normally.Having a clear concept of gls{v2x} Marginal Cost which can properly account for and balance all true costs: the cost of electricity, the system-efficiency costs, and battery degradation, will allow for development of optimal charge strategies and will properly inform energy market bids. This results in a more nuanced understanding of marginal costs as the resultant battery lifetime impact from gls{v2x} can be either be considered a cost, a benefit, or zero. I conclude that gls{v2x} may offer greater economic value than previously understood and that this additional value will be realized through the simultaneous improvement in charge efficiency and reduction of gls{ev} battery degradation.

The increase in electric vehicles and photovoltaic power production may introduce problems to the low-voltage distribution grid. With a higher number of electric vehicles, their accumulated charging power might breach the lowest allowed voltage level of the grid. Photovoltaic-modules can on the other hand exceed the highest allowed voltage level, by producing high accumulated power when the solar irradiance is high. Normally, electric distribution companies in Sweden reinforce the existing grid with more resilient infrastructure, such as stronger and larger cables or transformer stations. This is however a costly and time-consuming solution, which could be solved by using alternative means such as already existing resources. This Master's Thesis investigates how smart charging of batteries can support the low-voltage electrical grid with the increase in electric vehicles and photovoltaic power production. To do this, an optimization tool has been developed in Matlab. An existing model of a low-voltage grid is combined with the developed tool, where controllable batteries and photovoltaic-modules can be placed at specific households in the grid. The controllable batteries belong to either electric vehicles or stationary battery systems, and are intended to support the grid by the means of either reducing peak load powers, voltage variations, or a trade-off between them. Furthermore, this thesis investigates the maximum electric vehicle capability for a specific low-voltage electrical grid in Sweden. From the results, it can be concluded that smart charging of batteries can reduce the peak loads as well as voltage variations. The reduction of voltage variations for the entire low-voltage grid is greatest during the summer, when photovoltaic production generally is at its highest. The results also show that a stationary battery system can reduce the voltage variations to a greater extent, compared to an electric vehicle. Also, the introduction of multiple controllable batteries allows further support of the low-voltage grid. Regarding the maximum electric vehicle capability, the results show that the placement of the vehicles and the charging power strongly affect the maximum number of electric vehicles the low-voltage grid can manage. / Ökningen av elbilar och elproduktion från solceller kan ge problem i lågspänningsnätet. Med ett ökat antal elbilar kan den sammanlagrade effekten vid laddning underskrida den minsta tillåtna spänningsnivån i nätet. Solpaneler kan däremot leda till att den högsta tillåtna spänningsnivån överskrids, genom att producera en hög sammanlagrad effekt när solstrålningen är som högst. Vanligtvis förstärker elnätsbolag i Sverige det befintliga nätet med motståndskraftigare infrastruktur, såsom kraftigare och större kablar eller transformatorstationer. Detta är dock en kostsam och tidskrävande lösning, som skulle kunna lösas med alternativa medel, till exempel redan existerande resurser. Detta examensarbete undersöker hur smart laddning av batterier kan ge stöd till lågspänningsnätet, med en ökning av elbilar samt solcellsproduktion. För att undersöka detta har ett optimeringsverktyg utvecklats i Matlab. En befintlig modell av ett lågspänningsnät har kombinerats med det utvecklade optimeringsverktyget, där styrbara batterier samt solcellsproduktion kan placeras vid specifika hushåll i elnätet. De styrbara batterierna är antingen elbilar eller stationära batterisystem, och är ämnade till att stödja lågspänningsnätet genom att antingen reducera effekttoppar, spänningsvariationer eller en kompromiss av båda. Vidare undersöker detta examensarbete det maximala antalet elbilar som ett specifikt lågspänningsnät i Sverige kan hantera. Resultaten visar att smart laddning av batterier kan reducera effekttoppar samt spänningsvariationer. Reduceringen av spänningsvariationerna för hela lågspänningsnätet visar sig vara högst under sommaren, vilket är då solcellsproduktionen generellt är som högst. Resultaten visar även att stationära batterisystem kan reducera spänningsvariationer ytterligare, jämfört med en elbil. Att introducera flera styrbara batterier tillåter ett ännu större stöd till lågspänningsnätet. Angående det maximala antalet av elbilar som ett lågspänningsnät kan hantera visade resultaten att placeringen av elbilarna samt laddningseffekten har en stor påverkan.