Influenza B virus hemagglutinin (HA) is a major surface glycoprotein with frequent amino-acid substitutions. However, the roles of antibody selection in the amino-acid substitutions of HA were still poorly understood. An analysis was conducted on a total of 271 HA 1 sequences of influenza B virus strains isolated during 1940∼2007 finding positively selected sites all located in the four major epitopes (120-loop, 150-loop, 160-loop and 190-helix) supporting a predominant role of antibody selection in HA evolution. Of particular significance is the involvement of the 120-loop in positive selection. Influenza B virus HA continues to evolve into new sublineages, within which the four major epitopes were targeted selectively in positive selection. Thus, any newly emerging strains need to be placed in the context of their evolutionary history in order to understand and predict their epidemic potential. As key epigenetic regulators, polycomb group (PcG) proteins are responsible for the control of cell proliferation and differentiation as well as stem cell pluripotency and self-renewal. To facilitate experimental identification of PcG target genes, which are poorly understood, we propose a novel computational method, EpiPredictor , which models transcription factor interaction using a non-linear kernel. The resulting targets suggests that multiple transcription factor networking at the cis -regulatory elements is critical for PcG recruitment, while high GC content and high conservation level are also important features of PcG target genes. To try to translate the EpiPredictor into human data, we performed a computational study utilizing 22 human genome-wide CHIP data to identify DNA motifs and genome features that would potentially specify PRC2 using five motif discovery algorithms, Jaspar known transcription binding motifs, and other whole genome data. We have found multiple motifs within the various subgroups of experimental categories that have much higher enrichment against CHIP identified gene promoter than among random gene promoters. Specifically, we have identified Low CpG content CpG Islands (LeG's) as being critical in the separation of Cancer cell line identified targets from Embryonic Stem cell line identified targets. Additionally, there are differences between human and mouse ES cell predictions using the same motifs and features suggesting relevant evolutionary divergence.

Made available in DSpace on 2015-07-22T20:50:48Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2011-01-26 / Uma grande quantidade dos vírus de importância médica, como o HIV, o vírus sincicial respiratório, o vírus da hepatite C, o vírus influenza A (H1N1), e o vírus da poliomielite, possui genoma RNA. Estes vírus apresentam taxas mutacionais extremamente altas, rápida cinética replicativa, população numerosa de partículas, e grande diversidade genética. Manifestas durante o processo infeccioso, tais características permitem a população viral adaptar-se rapidamente a ambientes dinâmicos, escapar ao sistema imunológico, desenvolver resistência às vacinas e drogas antivirais, e exibir dinâmica evolutiva complexa cuja compreensão representa um desafio para a genética de populações tradicional e para as estratégias de intervenção terapêutica efetiva. Para descrever biológica e matematicamente a evolução dos vírus RNA, modelos teóricos de evolução viral têm sido propostos, e muitas de suas predições foram confirmadas experimentalmente. O presente trabalho teve como objetivo simular computacionalmente e analisar um modelo de evolução viral que represente relações evolutivas existentes entre a população viral de genoma RNA e as diferentes pressões seletivas exercidas sobre ela na sua interação com o organismo hospedeiro. Também objetivou desenvolver um software de simulação computacional personalizado para o modelo de evolução viral, e demonstrar a possibilidade de descrever o modelo como um processo de ramificação de Galton-Watson. Entre os resultados e discussões delineados, encontram-se um critério analítico para estudo do tempo de recuperação e do regime crítico de um processo de ramificação de Galton-Watson aplicado à evolução viral; predições sobre a correlação entre fatores do organismo hospedeiro e a dinâmica evolutiva da população viral; predições sobre a contribuição da taxa mutacional, do tamanho e da capacidade replicativa máxima da população viral para o prognóstico e quatro fases da infecção: o tempo de recuperação, o equilíbrio mutação-seleção, o limiar da extinção, e a mutagênese letal. / A large amount of viruses of medical importance such as HIV, respiratory syncytial virus, the hepatitis C virus, influenza A (H1N1) and polio virus, has RNA genome. These viruses exhibit extremely high mutational rate, fast replicative kinetics, large population of particles and high genetic diversity. Manifested during the infectious process, these features allow the virus population to adapt quickly to dynamic environments, escape from the immune system, develop resistance to vaccines and antiviral drugs, and display complex evolutionary dynamics whose understanding represents a challenge to the traditional population genetics and for effective therapeutic intervention strategies. To describe mathematically and biological evolution of RNA viruses, theoretical models of virus evolution have been proposed, and many of their predictions were experimentally confirmed. This study aimed to simulate and analyze computationally a model of viral evolution that represents evolutionary relationships between the population of viral RNA genome and the different selective pressures on it in its interaction with the host organism. It also aimed to develop computational simulation software for the viral evolution model, and demonstrate the possibility of describing the model as a Galton-Watson branching process. Among the results and discussions outlined, there are an analytical criterion to study the recovery time and the critical regime of a Galton-Watson branching process applied to viral evolution; predictions about the correlation between factors of the host organism and the evolutionary dynamics of viral population; predictions about the contribution of mutational rate, the size and maximum replicative capacity of viral population for the prognosis and four stages of infection: recovery time, mutation-selection equilibrium, extinction threshold, and lethal mutagenesis. / TEDE / BV UNIFESP: Teses e dissertações

No presente trabalho, investigamos a filodinâmica de três modelos virais diferentes, utilizando técnicas baseadas em verossimilhança e inferência bayesiana. Dois desses são flavivírus com genoma de RNA fita simples e senso positivo. O terceiro é um bunyavírus com genoma tri-segmentado de RNA fita simples com senso negativo. Estes diferentes modelos permitiram estudar diferentes mecanismos promotores de diversidade viral, reagrupamento de segmentos genômicos (shift) e mutação (drift), que atuam em diferentes granularidades. Descrevemos pela primeira vez o espalhamento geográfico das linhagens de vírus Zika (ZIKV) em um nível continental, assim como ocorrência de recombinação e associação entre padrões de glicosilação e vetores. Para o flavivírus da encefalite transmitida por carrapatos (TBEV), investigamos seu espalhamento e encontramos evidências que corroboram a hipótese de circulação viral restrita a focos na Europa central. As análises sobre o vírus da Febre da Grande Fenda Africana (RVFV) apontaram a ocorrência de reagrupamento de segmentos genômicos e também ajudaram a elucidar sua dispersão do leste do continente africano para o oeste, encontrando-se diversas introduções no Senegal e Mauritânia. Aparentemente, este vírus teve a entrada facilitada nesses países por uma região que funciona como um centro de dispersão (hub) por ser encontro de rotas migratórias de animais. Ademais, investigamos a ocorrência de rearranjos de segmentos genômicos de RVFV e também estudamos as diferenças nas dinâmicas evolutivas de cada segmento. / In this study, we investigated the phylodynamics of three different viral models, using techniques based on maximum likelihood and Bayesian inference methods. Two of these viruses are flaviviruses, whose genomes are formed by a single-stranded positive-sense RNA molecule. The third is a Bunyavirus with tri-segmented single-stranded RNA genome with negative sense. These different models allowed us to investigate two different mechanisms to promote viral diversity, (i) recombination of genomic segments (\"shift\") and (ii) mutation (\"drift\"), therefore exploring different levels of granularity of evolutionary process. We described for the first time the geographic spread of Zika virus (ZIKV) strains in a continental level, as well as, the occurrence of recombination and association between glycosylation patterns and vectors. For the other Flavivirus, tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV), we investigated its spreading and found evidences to support the hypothesis that viral circulation is very constrained by the foci in central Europe. The analyses about the Rift Valley Fever Virus (RVFV) revealed the occurrence of reassortment of genomic segments and their dispersal from eastern Africa to the west, with several introductions to Senegal and Mauritania. Apparently, the entry of RVFV in these countries was facilitated by the region of Kedougou, where several migratory routes of animals converge. This place maybe works as a hub to spread RVFV for West Africa. Moreover, we also investigated the differences in evolutionary dynamics of each genomic segment of RVFV.

Background Dengue is a significant problem of international health concern. According to the World Health Organization in 2012, globally, dengue is “the most important mosquito borne viral disease” with incidence 30 higher than it had been 50 years ago. While most of the burden of disease associated with dengue is located in areas with a tropical and sub-tropical climate, increasing evidence suggests temperate areas are also at risk. Considering the recent introduction of relevant mosquito vectors into Southern Europe, and increasing numbers of imported dengue via travelers, Europe and other temperate areas may be increasingly at risk for dengue emergence, establishment and local transmission in the foreseeable future. Methods Recent dengue emergence in Madeira and reemergence in Tokyo underline the hypothesis that passenger air-travel can be an important conduit for the importation of vector-borne disease leading to emergence in naïve areas climatically suitable for dengue transmission, including parts of Europe. Combining information on travel with virus genetic similarity was useful in discerning likely pathways of for the importation of infections. Generalizing information learned from outbreaks in Tokyo and Madeira with global epidemic intelligence, global travel networks, and climate change projections, leads to more refined understanding of the magnitude of dengue infectious imported into temperate areas and these virus introduction events’ potential implications for seeding epidemics in the 21st century. Results While compared to total travel, imported dengue events and epidemics of dengue outside the tropics are rare, our combined evidence and modeled estimations suggest strongly that epidemic dengue emergence in temperate areas is possible and will continue to increase. We found that global change dynamics including warming temperatures in the much of the northern hemisphere and increasing passenger interconnectivity between areas endemic for dengue and dengue free areas are key mechanisms partly explaining these unprecedented epidemiological transitions. Conclusion While we calibrated our models on information known about dengue, many elements of the methods and conclusions may increase understanding of the potentially global implications for imported infections of other climate-sensitive infectious diseases’ that may have similar parameters. During 2016 and the years to come, techniques developed in this doctoral research will contribute to models used in risk analysis for vector-borne diseases of interest, including the increasing important potential for imported Chikungunya and Zika viruses into a variety of unexposed areas.

La résistance aux agents de biocontrôle est un problème majeur dans les cultures du monde entier. Ainsi, le carpocapse du pommier, Cydia pomonella, a développé des résistances contre des traitements répétés au Cydia pomonella granulovirus (CpGV) dans plusieurs pays d’Europe. Ces résistances posent la question de la durabilité de ce type de lutte contre les ravageurs. Ce travail porte sur l’étude de plusieurs aspects des interactions granulovirus/hôtes : en premier lieu, sur l’étude des différences de sensibilité au CpGV entre des colonies d’insectes de laboratoire afin de mieux cerner les mécanismes d’apparition de résistances. Concernant le virus, le génome complet de cinq isolats viraux utilisés au cours de ces travaux a été séquencé et une analyse des gènes positivement sélectionnés a été conduite afin de découvrir de nouveaux gènes potentiellement importants pour la valeur sélective du virus. L’adaptabilité du CpGV à un hôte C. pomonella résistant ainsi qu’à un hôte d’une espèce proche, Cydia molesta a également été étudiée. Enfin, l’efficacité, sur différentes colonies d’insectes, de populations de génotypes viraux mélangées ainsi que de leurs générations successives ont été analysés. Ces études nous ont permis de mettre en évidence une diversité génétique très étendue chez le CpGV ainsi que des phénomènes de co-infections d’une même cellule et de recombinaison. Ainsi, s’il semble impossible de certifier une méthode de biocontrôle d’une efficacité constante, il apparait que les capacités évolutives des virus permettront de supporter des phénomènes de résistance des hôtes. Un suivi annuel afin de permettre une évolution dirigée du virus sera toutefois obligatoire. / Resistance to biocontrol agents is a critical issue worldwide in orchards. Thereby the codling moth Cydia pomonella developed resistances under repeated treatments with Cydia pomonella granulovirus (CpGV) in several European countries. These resistances raise the issue of the durability of such a pest control. This work aims to investigate various aspects of granulovirus/host interactions: first by studying the susceptibility variations to CpGV infection between different laboratory insect colonies in order to assess the mechanisms of resistances apparition; to investigate the virus diversity, complete genomes of five viral isolates used over this work have been sequenced and an analysis of the positively selected genes has been carried out as to come up with new genes potentially important for the fitness of the virus. The adaptability of CpGV to a resistant C. pomonella host as well as to a related specie, Cydia molesta has also been studied. Finally, the efficiency, on different insect colonies, of mixed populations of viral genotypes as well as their successive offspring have been analyzed. These studies allowed highlighting a wide genetic diversity among CpGVs, together with co-infection within cell and recombination phenomenon. Thus, if it seems impossible to certify a biocontrol method with constant efficacy, it appears that the evolutive capacities of viruses will allow overcoming host resistance phenomenon. However, one will need to keep one step ahead from the virus, which means an annual survey to permit a directed evolution of the virus.

Le séquençage haut débit a été utilisé dans ce travail pour reconstruire avec des méthodes adaptées le génomeviral entier du virus de l’hépatite C (VHC) notamment pour le typer avec précision. Une étude a ainsi permisde mettre en évidence la présence d’une forme recombinante du VHC chez un patient. Une autre a permisde typer et détecter les mutations de résistance de plusieurs souches de VHC de génotypes différents. Enfin,une dernière étude basée sur cette approche a permis de découvrir une souche VHC appartenant à un nouveausous-type. Le séquençage haut débit a aussi été utilisé dans ce travail pour détecter des infections multiples etanalyser l’évolution virale en ciblant des gènes du VHC et en mettant en œuvre des méthodes non spécifiquespour 2 patients VHC sous traitement. Cette étude rétrospective a permis de définir la composition de chaqueéchantillon temporel, estimer leur diversité nucléotidique, explorer la structure génétique de la population viraleet son évolution temporelle et dater les infections secondaires. Les résultats obtenus supportent l’hypothèse d’unmécanisme d’apparition de résistance au traitement (selective sweeps). / High-throughput sequencing has been used in this work to reconstruct with adapted methods the whole genomeof the hepatitis C virus (HCV) particularly for accurately typing the virus. Thus, we managed to detect in a studya recombinant form of HCV circulating within a patient. We typed and detected in another study resistancemutations of several HCV strains of different genotypes. Finally, a last study based on this approach enabled touncover a HCV strain belonging to a new subtype. High-throughput sequencing has also been used in this workto detect multiple infections and analyze viral evolution with targeted HCV genes and non-specific methods for2 HCV patients under treatment. This retrospective study enabled to define the composition of each temporalsample, assess their nucleotide diversity, investigate viral population genetic structure and temporal evolutionand date secondary infections. Results of this analysis support the hypothesis of onset mechanism of treatmentresistance (selective sweeps).

Nous sommes toujours aux prises avec la pandémie de SARS-CoV-2 plus de deux ans après son début. Le virus a depuis accumulé de nombreuses mutations qui ont mené à différentes souches virales au long de la pandémie. Plusieurs de ces mutations sont récurrentes: il y a un excès de mutations C > U dans les génomes viraux, certains codons sont fréquemment mutés vers différents acides aminés et certaines mutations sont convergentes, c’est-à-dire que la même substitution est apparue de manière indépendante sur différentes lignées. Dans ce mémoire, nous avons identifiés différentes manières par lesquelles le SARS-CoV-2 évolue à travers l’étude de ces mutations récurrentes et évaluons leur impact sur l’évasion immunitaire. Premièrement, nous avons déterminés que les mutations C > U sont responsable de l’introduction et du retrait préférentiel d’acides aminés spécifiques dans les épitopes viraux. Nous avons déterminé la significativité statistique de ces patrons de mutation à l’aide de simulations génomiques virales. Deuxièmement, nous avons participé à la surveillance des variants au Québec durant la deuxième vague de la pandémie, qui s’est déroulée d’août 2020 à mars 2021. C’était une période intéressante pour la diversité virale, puisque les restrictions de déplacement ont créé de multiples poches de variants locaux en compétition les uns avec les autres qui partagent des mutations convergentes. Notamment, nous reportons que les lignées B.1.160 et B.1.1.176 comptaient pour 50% des échantillons séquencés au sommet de la deuxième vague dans la province. Finalement, nous avons analysé les patrons mutationnels intra-hôte qui sont apparus de novo dans le contexte d’infections au SARS-CoV-2 de longue durée chez des patients atteints de cancers hématologiques. Une de ces patientes est une patiente québécoise infectée par B.1.160 et dans laquelle nous avons identifié la présence d’un réservoir viral. Nous avons également trouvé des éléments probants montrant différentes quasiespèces virales avec des propriétés d’évasion immunitaire. Nos résultats permettent de mieux comprendre les différentes manières dont les pressions sélectives façonnent l’évolution virale. / We are still living in the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic over two years after its start. The virus has since accumulated many mutations that have led to different viral strains throughout the pandemic. Several of these mutations are recurrent: there is an excess of C > U substitutions in viral genomes, some codons are frequently mutated to different amino acids, and some mutations are convergent, meaning that the same substitution has occurred independently on different lineages. In this thesis, we identified different ways in which SARS-CoV-2 evolves through these recurrent mutations and assess their impact on immune escape. First, we determined that C > U mutations drive the preferential introduction and removal of specific amino acids in viral epitopes. Using genetic simulations, we determined the statistical significance of these patterns. Second, we participated in the surveillance of variants in Quebec during the second wave of the pandemic that went from the end of August 2020 to the end of March 2021. This was an interesting period of viral diversity owing to imposed travel restrictions that created competition between multiple pockets of local strains that share convergent mutations. Notably, we found that lineages B.1.160 and B.1.1.176 account for 50% of samples sequenced at the height of the second wave in the province. Finally, we analyzed intra-host mutational patterns that arose de novo in the context of long-term infections of patients with hematological cancers, one of which was from Québec and infected by B.1.160. We have identified a pattern consistent with the presence of a viral reservoir in this patient. We have also found evidence of different viral quasispecies with immune escape properties. These results shed light on different ways in which selective pressures shape the evolution of SARS-CoV-2.

L’épidémie du VIH-1 dure maintenant depuis plus de 25 ans. La grande diversité génétique de ce virus est un obstacle majeur en vue de l’éradication de cette pandémie. Au cours des années, le VIH-1 a évolué en plus de cinquante sous-types ou formes recombinantes. Cette diversité génétique est influencée par diverses pressions de sélection, incluant les pressions du système immunitaire de l’hôte et les agents antirétroviraux (ARV). En effet, bien que les ARV aient considérablement réduit les taux de morbidité et de mortalité, en plus d’améliorer la qualité et l’espérance de vie des personnes atteintes du VIH-1, ces traitements sont complexes, dispendieux et amènent leur lot de toxicité pouvant mener à des concentrations plasmatiques sous-optimales pour contrôler la réplication virale. Ceci va permettre l’émergence de variantes virales portant des mutations de résistance aux ARV. Ce phénomène est encore plus complexe lorsque l’on prend en considération l’immense diversité génétique des différents sous-types. De plus, le virus du VIH est capable de persister sous forme latente dans diverses populations cellulaires, rendant ainsi son éradication extrêmement difficile. Des stratégies pouvant restreindre la diversité virale ont donc été préconisées dans le but de favoriser les réponses immunes de l’hôte pour le contrôle de l’infection et d’identifier des variantes virales offrant une meilleure cible pour des stratégies vaccinales ou immunothérapeutiques. Dans cet esprit, nous avons donc étudié, chez des sujets infectés récemment par le VIH-1, l’effet du traitement ARV précoce sur la diversité virale de la région C2V5 du gène enveloppe ainsi que sur la taille des réservoirs. En deuxième lieu, nous avons caractérisé la pression de sélection des ARV sur des souches virales de sous types variés non-B, chez des patients du Mali et du Burkina Faso afin d’évaluer les voies d’échappement viral dans un fond génétique différent du sous-type B largement prévalent en Amérique du Nord. Notre étude a démontré la présence d’une population virale très homogène et peu diversifiée dans les premières semaines suivant l’infection, qui évolue pour atteindre une diversification de +0,23% à la fin de la première année. Cette diversification est plus importante chez les sujets n’ayant pas initié de traitement. De plus, ceci s’accompagne d’un plus grand nombre de particules virales infectieuses dans les réservoirs viraux des cellules mononucléées du sang périphérique (PBMC) chez ces sujets. Ces résultats suggèrent que l’initiation précoce du traitement pourrait avoir un effet bénéfique en retardant l’évolution virale ainsi que la taille des réservoirs, ce qui pourrait supporter une réponse immune mieux ciblée et potentiellement des stratégies immunothérapeutiques permettant d’éradiquer le virus. Nous avons également suivi 801 sujets infectés par des sous-types non-B sur le point de débuter un traitement antirétroviral. Bien que la majorité des sujets ait été à un stade avancé de la maladie, plus de 75% des individus ont obtenu une charge virale indétectable après 6 mois d’ARV, témoignant de l’efficacité comparable des ARV sur les sous-types non-B et B. Toutefois, contrairement aux virus de sous-type B, nous avons observé différentes voies moléculaires de résistance chez les sous type non-B, particulièrement chez les sous-types AGK/AK/K pour lesquels les voies de résistances étaient associées de façon prédominante aux TAM2. De plus, bien que la divergence entre les virus retrouvés chez les patients d’une même région soit faible, nos analyses phylogénétiques ont permis de conclure que ces mutations de résistance se sont produites de novo et non à partir d’un ancêtre commun porteur de résistance. Cependant, notre dernière étude au Mali nous a permis d’évaluer la résistance primaire à près de 10% et des études phylogénétiques seront effectuées afin d’évaluer la circulation de ces souches résistantes dans la population. Ces études suggèrent qu’un contrôle de la réplication virale par les ARV peut freiner la diversité du VIH et ainsi ouvrir la voie à un contrôle immunologique ciblé, utilisant de nouvelles stratégies vaccinales ou immunothérapeutiques. Toutefois, une thérapie antirétrovirale sous-optimale (adhérence, toxicité) peut conduire à l’échappement virologique en favorisant l’émergence et la dissémination de souches résistantes. / The HIV epidemic has been ongoing for 25 years. The striking genetic diversity of this virus is a formidable obstacle to the eradication of the pandemic. Throughout the years, HIV-1 has evolved in more than fifty subtypes and circulating recombinants forms. This evolution is shaped by selective pressures including the host immune responses and sub-optimal HAART treatment. In the era of HAART, HIV associated morbidity and mortality has decreased dramatically and significantly improved the life expectancy of infected individuals. However, treatments are complex, expensive and are associated with toxicity. When viral replication is not fully contained, drug mutations arise which further complicate treatment options. This phenomenon is even more complex when taking into account the great genetic diversity of various HIV-1 subtypes. HIV also has the capacity to persist in different cellular population and thus eradication is extremely difficult to achieve. Strategies aiming at limiting viral diversity and improving the host immune responses to control HIV replication are needed. The identification of conserved viral variants could ultimately be useful in vaccine design or as an immunotherapeutic target. Thus, we have studied the effects early HAART during primary HIV infection has on viral diversity in the C2V5 region of the env gene and on the size of viral reservoir. We then characterized the selective pressure of ARV on non-B subtype and evaluated drug resistance pathways in non-B HIV genetic background in infected subjects from Mali and Burkina Faso as they initiated treatment. Our study demonstrated a homogenous viral population during the first weeks post infection. Viral diversity did increase during the first year to reach +0.23% at the end of the first year post infection. Patients not initiating treatment exhibited a higher magnitude of viral diversity, and the size of their viral reservoir as determined by the number of infectious units per million PBMC’s also reached higher values. Our results suggest that early treatment, by slowing viral evolution and size of viral reservoir, could permit strong immune system responses against contemporaneous viruses and could help achieved eradication. In another study, we followed 801 patients infected with non-B subtype who were about to start antiretroviral therapy. The majority of these patients were at advanced stages of the infection. Nevertheless, more than 75% achieved undetectable viral load after 6 months of therapy. This very encouraging result led us to conclude that antiretroviral therapy was efficient in controlling replication in non-B subtype infection at similar level than in subtype B infection. In contrast to subtype B infection, we observed different molecular resistance pathways in non-B subtypes, particularly in the AGK/AK/K subtype for which mutations were predominantly associated with the TAM2 pathway. Although our phylogenetic analysis showed a very closely related viral population in our population, we were able to determine that those mutations were not from a common ancestral virus transmitted in this population but rather were emerging de novo in those patients. We conducted another study in Mali and our results showed a primary drug resistance frequency of 10%. We are now conducting phlylogenetic studies to evaluate the prevalence of drug resistance virus transmission in this population. Our studies suggest that controlling viral replication by treatment could delay viral evolution. A slower viral diversity could have a beneficial effect on the immune system and could lead to the development of new vaccines or immunotherapeutics strategies. However, sub-optimal drugs concentrations (poor adherence, toxicitiy) could lead to viral escape and emergence of virus bearing drug resistance mutations which could further be disseminated in the population.

A fragmentação e a invasão de florestas tropicais e a crescente concentração de assentamentos humanos aumentaram exponencialmente as chances de exposição a vírus emergentes e emergentes. Dado o grande potencial de espalhamento de patógenos em população humanas, a identificação e caracterização de agentes patogênicos circulantes podem melhorar a atenção primária e as capacidades de diagnóstico para um agente emergente futuro. As abordagens moleculares e metagenômicas que utilizam as tecnologias de sequenciação da próxima geração levaram a descoberta e caracterização de muitos vírus emergentes na última década. Além disso, as abordagens in silico também podem ajudar a identificar vírus emergentes usando apenas dados de sequenciamento publicamente disponíveis. Além disso, estimar a ascendência filogenética e até mesmo analisar as mudanças no uso de codons são ferramentas adicionais que podem melhorar a nossa compreensão de vírus emergentes ou reemergentes. Este projeto visou aplicar essas ferramentas em ambos os vírus que poderiam estar circulando no Brasil: Parvovírus B19 e vírus da Febre Amarela. Também exploramos as aplicações de modelos ocultos de Markov e índice de adaptação de codons usando dados publicamente disponíveis. Esperamos que este trabalho forneça uma prova de conceito para futuros projetos metagenômicos e demonstre a utilidade das várias técnicas moleculares e bioinformáticas no estudo de vírus emergentes. / Fragmentation and encroachment of tropical rainforests and the growing concentration of human settlements have exponentially increased chances of exposure to re-emerging and emerging viruses. Given the large potential for pathogens to spillover and spread in a population, identifying and characterizing circulating human pathogens could improve the readiness and diagnostic capabilities for a future emergence. Molecular and metagenomic approaches using next-generation sequencing technologies have led to the discovery and characterization of many emerging viruses over the last decade. In complement, in silico approaches can also help identify emerging viruses using only publicly available sequencing data. Moreover, estimating the phylogenetic ancestry and even analyzing changes in codon usage are additional tools that can improve our understanding of an emerging or re-emerging virus. This project aimed to apply these tools to two viruses that could be circulating in Brazil: Parvovirus B19 and Yellow Fever virus. We also explored the applications of Hidden Markov models and codon adaptation index using publicly available data. We expect this work to provide a proof-of-concept for future metagenomic projects, and demonstrate the utility for several molecular and bioinformatics techniques in the study of emerging viruses.

L’épidémie du VIH-1 dure maintenant depuis plus de 25 ans. La grande diversité génétique de ce virus est un obstacle majeur en vue de l’éradication de cette pandémie. Au cours des années, le VIH-1 a évolué en plus de cinquante sous-types ou formes recombinantes. Cette diversité génétique est influencée par diverses pressions de sélection, incluant les pressions du système immunitaire de l’hôte et les agents antirétroviraux (ARV). En effet, bien que les ARV aient considérablement réduit les taux de morbidité et de mortalité, en plus d’améliorer la qualité et l’espérance de vie des personnes atteintes du VIH-1, ces traitements sont complexes, dispendieux et amènent leur lot de toxicité pouvant mener à des concentrations plasmatiques sous-optimales pour contrôler la réplication virale. Ceci va permettre l’émergence de variantes virales portant des mutations de résistance aux ARV. Ce phénomène est encore plus complexe lorsque l’on prend en considération l’immense diversité génétique des différents sous-types. De plus, le virus du VIH est capable de persister sous forme latente dans diverses populations cellulaires, rendant ainsi son éradication extrêmement difficile. Des stratégies pouvant restreindre la diversité virale ont donc été préconisées dans le but de favoriser les réponses immunes de l’hôte pour le contrôle de l’infection et d’identifier des variantes virales offrant une meilleure cible pour des stratégies vaccinales ou immunothérapeutiques. Dans cet esprit, nous avons donc étudié, chez des sujets infectés récemment par le VIH-1, l’effet du traitement ARV précoce sur la diversité virale de la région C2V5 du gène enveloppe ainsi que sur la taille des réservoirs. En deuxième lieu, nous avons caractérisé la pression de sélection des ARV sur des souches virales de sous types variés non-B, chez des patients du Mali et du Burkina Faso afin d’évaluer les voies d’échappement viral dans un fond génétique différent du sous-type B largement prévalent en Amérique du Nord. Notre étude a démontré la présence d’une population virale très homogène et peu diversifiée dans les premières semaines suivant l’infection, qui évolue pour atteindre une diversification de +0,23% à la fin de la première année. Cette diversification est plus importante chez les sujets n’ayant pas initié de traitement. De plus, ceci s’accompagne d’un plus grand nombre de particules virales infectieuses dans les réservoirs viraux des cellules mononucléées du sang périphérique (PBMC) chez ces sujets. Ces résultats suggèrent que l’initiation précoce du traitement pourrait avoir un effet bénéfique en retardant l’évolution virale ainsi que la taille des réservoirs, ce qui pourrait supporter une réponse immune mieux ciblée et potentiellement des stratégies immunothérapeutiques permettant d’éradiquer le virus. Nous avons également suivi 801 sujets infectés par des sous-types non-B sur le point de débuter un traitement antirétroviral. Bien que la majorité des sujets ait été à un stade avancé de la maladie, plus de 75% des individus ont obtenu une charge virale indétectable après 6 mois d’ARV, témoignant de l’efficacité comparable des ARV sur les sous-types non-B et B. Toutefois, contrairement aux virus de sous-type B, nous avons observé différentes voies moléculaires de résistance chez les sous type non-B, particulièrement chez les sous-types AGK/AK/K pour lesquels les voies de résistances étaient associées de façon prédominante aux TAM2. De plus, bien que la divergence entre les virus retrouvés chez les patients d’une même région soit faible, nos analyses phylogénétiques ont permis de conclure que ces mutations de résistance se sont produites de novo et non à partir d’un ancêtre commun porteur de résistance. Cependant, notre dernière étude au Mali nous a permis d’évaluer la résistance primaire à près de 10% et des études phylogénétiques seront effectuées afin d’évaluer la circulation de ces souches résistantes dans la population. Ces études suggèrent qu’un contrôle de la réplication virale par les ARV peut freiner la diversité du VIH et ainsi ouvrir la voie à un contrôle immunologique ciblé, utilisant de nouvelles stratégies vaccinales ou immunothérapeutiques. Toutefois, une thérapie antirétrovirale sous-optimale (adhérence, toxicité) peut conduire à l’échappement virologique en favorisant l’émergence et la dissémination de souches résistantes. / The HIV epidemic has been ongoing for 25 years. The striking genetic diversity of this virus is a formidable obstacle to the eradication of the pandemic. Throughout the years, HIV-1 has evolved in more than fifty subtypes and circulating recombinants forms. This evolution is shaped by selective pressures including the host immune responses and sub-optimal HAART treatment. In the era of HAART, HIV associated morbidity and mortality has decreased dramatically and significantly improved the life expectancy of infected individuals. However, treatments are complex, expensive and are associated with toxicity. When viral replication is not fully contained, drug mutations arise which further complicate treatment options. This phenomenon is even more complex when taking into account the great genetic diversity of various HIV-1 subtypes. HIV also has the capacity to persist in different cellular population and thus eradication is extremely difficult to achieve. Strategies aiming at limiting viral diversity and improving the host immune responses to control HIV replication are needed. The identification of conserved viral variants could ultimately be useful in vaccine design or as an immunotherapeutic target. Thus, we have studied the effects early HAART during primary HIV infection has on viral diversity in the C2V5 region of the env gene and on the size of viral reservoir. We then characterized the selective pressure of ARV on non-B subtype and evaluated drug resistance pathways in non-B HIV genetic background in infected subjects from Mali and Burkina Faso as they initiated treatment. Our study demonstrated a homogenous viral population during the first weeks post infection. Viral diversity did increase during the first year to reach +0.23% at the end of the first year post infection. Patients not initiating treatment exhibited a higher magnitude of viral diversity, and the size of their viral reservoir as determined by the number of infectious units per million PBMC’s also reached higher values. Our results suggest that early treatment, by slowing viral evolution and size of viral reservoir, could permit strong immune system responses against contemporaneous viruses and could help achieved eradication. In another study, we followed 801 patients infected with non-B subtype who were about to start antiretroviral therapy. The majority of these patients were at advanced stages of the infection. Nevertheless, more than 75% achieved undetectable viral load after 6 months of therapy. This very encouraging result led us to conclude that antiretroviral therapy was efficient in controlling replication in non-B subtype infection at similar level than in subtype B infection. In contrast to subtype B infection, we observed different molecular resistance pathways in non-B subtypes, particularly in the AGK/AK/K subtype for which mutations were predominantly associated with the TAM2 pathway. Although our phylogenetic analysis showed a very closely related viral population in our population, we were able to determine that those mutations were not from a common ancestral virus transmitted in this population but rather were emerging de novo in those patients. We conducted another study in Mali and our results showed a primary drug resistance frequency of 10%. We are now conducting phlylogenetic studies to evaluate the prevalence of drug resistance virus transmission in this population. Our studies suggest that controlling viral replication by treatment could delay viral evolution. A slower viral diversity could have a beneficial effect on the immune system and could lead to the development of new vaccines or immunotherapeutics strategies. However, sub-optimal drugs concentrations (poor adherence, toxicitiy) could lead to viral escape and emergence of virus bearing drug resistance mutations which could further be disseminated in the population.