From the Proceedings of the 1971 Meetings of the Arizona Section - American Water Resources Assn. and the Hydrology Section - Arizona Academy of Science - April 22-23, 1971, Tempe, Arizona / Sewage effluent is commonly used for the irrigation of crops that are not consumed raw. Due to continued population growth in the Salt River Valley, Arizona, economic reuse of municipal waste waters is becoming essential. The salt river bed has about 3 ft of fine loamy sand underlain by sand and gravel layers to great depth and a groundwater table at about 10 ft depth. These conditions are very favorable for high-rate waste water reclamation by groundwater recharge. The activated sludge plant in phoenix will probably be discharging 250 mgd by the year 2000. At 4.5 ft average annual water use, this could irrigate about 70,000 acres, possibly more than agriculture will need at that time. A sewage effluent renovation pilot project was located about 1.5 miles from the plant. It contains 6 parallel recharge basins 20 to 700 ft each, spaced 20 ft apart. The basins were covered by grass, gravel or were left bare. Observation wells were installed at various locations in the area. Results indicated that infiltration rates were fastest in the grassy basins. Phosphate, nitrogen and median fecal coliform levels were all lower after this form of tertiary treatment. Practical details of the application of this water reclamation method in the Salt River Valley are outlined. Costs would be 5 dollars/af, less than 1/10 the equivalent costs of in-plant tertiary treatments.

From the Proceedings of the 1978 Meetings of the Arizona Section - American Water Resources Assn. and the Hydrology Section - Arizona Academy of Science - April 14-15, 1978, Flagstaff, Arizona / Land treatment of secondary municipal wastewater is an economical and aesthetic method of upgrading water quality, if hydrologic and geologic conditions are favorable. Costly conventional secondary treatment, which requires large quantities of electrical energy, can be bypassed by applying the primary effluent directly to the land. Soil- denitrifying bacteria use the organic carbon in the primary effluent as an energy source for biodenitrification and nitrogen removal. Laboratory and field studies indicated the quality of renovated wastewater meets standards for unrestricted irrigation and recreational uses. Considerable savings, both in capital and energy costs, can be realized by land treatment of primary effluent.

From the Proceedings of the 1978 Meetings of the Arizona Section - American Water Resources Assn. and the Hydrology Section - Arizona Academy of Science - April 14-15, 1978, Flagstaff, Arizona / Even though the Phoenix Metropolitan Area is more fortunate than other areas of the desert southwest because of the dependable Salt and Verde River supplies, they still have water problems. The Central Arizona Project (CAP), which will bring water from the Colorado River, will help those problems. But the CAP will not eliminate them. Improved water resource management will be required to bring water supply and demand back into balance. A key element of any successful water resource management program must be wastewater reuse. The communities are studying reuse through their 208 water quality program and while they are discovering that many opportunities exist they are also discovering that there are also many problems to be solved.

From the Proceedings of the 1978 Meetings of the Arizona Section - American Water Resources Assn. and the Hydrology Section - Arizona Academy of Science - April 14-15, 1978, Flagstaff, Arizona / Algal growth and oxygen evolution at the soil -water interface of soil recharge basins intermittently flooded with secondary sewage effluent (SSE) produced diurnal fluxes in dissolved oxygen (DO) in the SSE and redox potentials (Eh) in the SSE and the surface soil of the basin. The maximum daily DO-% saturation in the SSE during flooding ranged from 30 to 450 %, depending on the length of flooding and seasonal effects of temperature and solar radiation. Diurnal cycles of Eh in the SSE and the top 0 to 2 cm of soil indicated that oxygen production by algae and bacterial nitrifying and denitrifying reactions at the soil-water interface are occurring daily for limited periods during flooding and that these reactions might contribute to the net-N removal and renovation of SSE by soil filtration.

The Distrito Federal in Western Central Brazil is characterized by a high share of urban population and a predicted growth of population. The corresponding increasing water consumption is associated with a falling groundwater table. The existing wastewater treatment plants could reach their capacity limits due to further increasing amounts of urban wastewater in conjunction with heavy precipitation events. During these events, untreated wastewater can become a contamination source for protected resources such as soil and water. This problem can be solved by soil aquifer recharge. This is a unique technique to take the load off the treatment plants, to store the water in the aquifer, and to improve the water quality during the soil passage. The controlled infiltration of pretreated municipal wastewater in the tropical soils can ensure the regional groundwater balance and backup high quality water as a suitable drinking water resource. The objective of the present thesis was to define suitable soils and areas for a soil aquifer treatment in the Distrito Federal to support the decentralized wastewater treatment management. For the identification of suitable soils, representative samples were taken. The soil samples were examined with respect to their pedological and geochemical properties. For the characterization of the unsaturated hydraulic conditions, in situ infiltration tests and a 3D infiltration monitoring were performed. Additionally, the retention potentials for sewage ingredients were determined for each soil with unsaturated, hydrochemical and geoelectrical column tests. Thus, it was possible to calculate the retention potentials of each soil against the wastewater content of an artificial wastewater. The artificial wastewater with known composition was infiltrated through the soil columns. The retention potentials of the soils were calculated by balancing the hydrochemical data. Afterwards, for the implementation of the hydraulic data and the data from the column tests, a utility analysis was performed to merge all parameters. Finally, the field and laboratory studies were combined within a GIS-based usability analysis to blend the determined parameter with geo-data to identify suitable areas for a soil aquifer treatment. Parameters as slope, land use and land cover were included in this analysis. After the evaluation of the hydrochemical balances, predominantly the younger soils turn out as suitable for an artificial recharge with water of impaired quality because of their high retention potential for TOC. The Gleissolo featured a retention potential of almost 100 % for TOC. However, a high hydraulic conductivity in the soils is necessary to ensure an effective artificial recharge. The Gleissolo featured the lowest measured hydraulic conductivity in the field test with 1,12 x 10-8 m/s. Due to the consideration of the determined hydraulic and hydrochemical data in the utility analysis, each parameter was weighted to embrace the requirement of an effective artificial recharge. The results of the laboratory and field tests have shown that the soil group of Latossolos is suitable for a soil aquifer treatment. These soils offer the best infiltration characteristics and a good retention potential against sewage ingredients for an effective artificial groundwater recharge with pretreated wastewater. Additional to that, slope, land use/land cover, depth of soil, and a defined distance to conservation area were considered in a GIS-based usability analysis. Additionally, the categorized soils from the utility analysis were included to identify suitable regions. The outcome of the thesis is a GIS-based usability analysis map which shows suitable areas for a soil aquifer treatment ranked by their category of suitability. Additionally, the thesis provides crucial evidences for soil parameters which have positive effects on wastewater infiltration. In addition, the 3D infiltration monitoring and the measured resistivity distribution showed that the gravitatively controlled infiltration influences only the soil zone immediately beneath the irrigation. Furthermore, it was found that the proxy of the geoelectrical resistivity is not (sufficiently) conclusive for the sorption potential of conductive wastewater ingredients. / O Distrito Federal, localizado no Centro-Oeste Brasileiro, é caracterizado por um intenso processo de urbanização o qual deve aumentar ainda mais nas próximas décadas. O correspondente crescimento no consumo de água está, também, associado ao rebaixamento dos níveis das águas subterrâneas. O atual sistema de tratamento de efluentes pode atingir seu limite de operação diante do crescimento demográfico e aumento de eventos extremos de chuva. Durante esses eventos, efluentes não tratados podem tornar-se uma fonte de contaminação aos recursos hídricos e solos. Uma solução é recarga artificial de águas subterrâneas. A mesma armazena o efluente pré-tratado nas águas subterrâneas e melhora a qualidade do mesmo durante o processo de percolação no solo. A infiltração controlada em solos tropicais pode contribuir para a qualidade das águas subterrâneas e balanço hídrico, servindo assim como fonte para o abastecimento de água. Essa tese tem como objetivo a identificação de áreas e solos propícios à recarga artificial de águas subterrâneas no Distrito Federal a fim de dar suporte à gestão decentralizada de tratamento de efluentes. Para a identificação dessas áreas, amostras representativas à diferentes tipos de solos foram obtidas. As amostras foram examinadas de acordo com suas propriedades pedológicas e geoquímicas. Para a caracterização das condições hidráulicas não saturadas, realizaram-se diversos testes de infiltração in situ, bem como o monitoramento 3D. Ainda, determinou-se para cada solo o potencial de retenção de poluentes através de testes de coluna insaturados, hidroquímico e geoelétricos. Dessa forma foi possível calcular os potenciais de retenção para cada solo quando utilizados efluentes sintéticos. Com base na contabilização de todos os dados hidroquímicos, calculou-se os potenciais de retenção de poluentes para o determinado efluente de composição conhecida. Mais a frente, para a implementação de dados hidráulicos e dados dos testes de coluna, utilizou-se uma análise de utilidade considerando todos os parâmetros. Finalmente, estudos de laboratório e campo foram combinados em uma análise baseada em sistema de informação geográfica (SIG). O mesmo permite o cruzamento de um determinado parâmetro obtido com uma base de dados georeferenciados (p. ex. classes de solos) a fim de identificar as áreas mais propícias. Parâmetros tais como declividade, uso e cobertura de solo foram incluídos nessa análise. Após a avaliação dos balanços hidroquímicos, identificou-se que os solos jovens possuem um alto potencial de retenção de carbono orgânico total (COT). Os mesmos mostraram-se adequados para recarga de águas subterrâneas com efluente residuário pré-tratado. Como exemplo, o Gleisolo apresentou um potencial de retenção de aproximadamente 100% de COT. No entanto, é importante lembrar que, a fim de garantir uma retenção efetiva, a condutividade hidráulica do solo deve ser alta. Nesse caso, o Gleisolo apresentou baixos valores no teste de campo com uma condutividade hidráulica de 1,12 x 10-8 m/s. Ainda, os dados hidráulicos e hidroquímicos medidos foram integrados à uma análise de uso-benefício. No caso, cada parâmetro recebe um peso de modo a atender às demandas de uma recarga efetiva de águas subterrâneas. Resultados mostram que o grupo de solo classificado com Latossolo é propício para a recarga de águas subterrâneas. O mesmo oferece a melhor característica de infiltração e potencial de retenção de contaminantes para uma recarga artificial com efluentes pré-tratados. Declividade, uso e ocupação de solo, profundidade do solo e uma distância devida de áreas de conservação foram contemplados na análise de utilidade baseada em SIG. Além disso, os colos caracterizados pela análise de uso-benefício foram incluídos com o intuito de identificar as regiões mais propícias para a prática. O resultado da tese é uma representação gráfica georeferenciada das áreas propícias para a aplicação de recarga artificial de águas subterrâneas. Ainda, a tese fornece evidências cruciais de parâmetros do solo que tem efeitos positivos na infiltração de efluentes pré-tratados. O monitoramento 3D de infiltração e a distribuição de resistividade medida mostram que infiltração controlada por gravidade influencia apenas a zona do solo imediata à superfície de irrigação. Mas a frente, foi determinado que o proxy da resistividade geoelétrica não é válido para o potencial de retenção de contaminantes condutores. / Der Distrito Federal ist durch eine starke Urbanisierung geprägt. Das ohnehin bereits starke Bevölkerungswachstum wird Prognosen zufolge weiter zunehmen. Der damit verbundene Anstieg des Wasserverbrauchs wird auch in absinkenden Grundwasserständen widergespiegelt. Weiterhin ist das westliche Zentralbrasilien aufgrund seiner Lage in den wechselfeuchten Tropen durch eine starke Saisonalität der Niederschläge geprägt. Das erhöhte Abwasseraufkommen in Verbindung mit extremen Niederschlagsereignissen kann zu einer deutlichen Überbelastung der vorhandenen Kläranlagen führen. In Extremsituationen kann ungeklärtes Abwasser in die Bodenzone gelangen und somit Schutzgüter wie Boden und Wasser kontaminieren. Eine effiziente Maßnahme gegenüber der unkontrollierten Versickerung von ungeklärtem Abwasser sowie zur Vorbeugung absinkender Grundwasserspiegel ist die gezielte Infiltration von vorbehandeltem Abwasser in Verbindung mit einer Grundwasseranreicherung. Diese Maßnahme umfasst einen zusätzlichen Reinigungsschritt des vorgereinigten Abwassers und dient zur Vorbeugung gegenüber absinkenden Grundwasserspiegeln. Ziel der Arbeit war es, geeignete Böden und Flächen für eine Grundwasseranreicherung mit vorbehandeltem Abwasser im Distrito Federal auszuweisen. Zur Identifizierung geeigneter Böden wurden repräsentative Bodenproben auf ihre pedologischen und geochemischen Eigenschaften hin untersucht. Zusätzlich wurden in situ Durchlässigkeitstests und ein Versickerungsmonitoring aufgebaut, um zur Klärung der Infiltrationseigenschaften beizutragen. Für die Laboruntersuchungen wurden die Bodenproben im Hinblick auf ihre Schadstoffrückhaltepotentiale untersucht. Dazu wurden kombinierte hydrochemische und geoelektrische sowie ungesättigte Säulenversuche durchgeführt. Dadurch war es möglich, Rückschlüsse auf die Sorptionsleistung der Böden gegenüber den Abwasserinhaltsstoffen einer künstlichen Abwasserlösung schließen zu können. Die Bodensäulen wurden mit einem künstlichen Abwasser mit bekannter Schadstoffzusammensetzung überstaut. Auf der Grundlage der Bilanzierung aller hydrochemischen Daten wurden die Schadstoffrückhaltepotentiale für die Abwasserinhaltsstoffe berechnet. Anschließend wurden die experimentell ermittelten Parameter in einer Nutzwertanalyse zusammengefasst, um so geeignete Böden für eine effiziente Grundwasseranreicherung mit vorbehandeltem Abwasser zu identifizieren. Abschließend wurden die Feld- und Laboruntersuchungen mit einer GIS-basierten Nutzbarkeitsanalyse komplettiert, um die gemessenen Parameter mit weiteren vorliegenden, räumlich aufgelösten Daten verschneiden zu können. In diese Analyse wurden Parameter wie Gefälle, Landnutzung und Landbedeckung einbezogen. Bei der Auswertung der hydrochemischen Bilanzen kristallisierten sich vorwiegend die jungen Böden aufgrund ihrer hohen Schadstoffrückhaltepotentiale als geeignete Böden für eine Grundwasseranreicherung mit vorbehandeltem Abwasser heraus. Exemplarisch wies der Gleissolo ein Sorptionspotential von fast 100 % für den Parameter TOC auf. Allerdings müssen Böden für eine effektive Grundwasseranreicherung mit vorbehandeltem Abwasser zusätzlich zu den hohen Sorptionsleistungen auch hohe hydraulische Durchlässigkeiten aufweisen. Für den Gleissolo wurde im Feldversuch die niedrigste hydraulische Durchlässigkeit von 1,12 x 10-8 m/s bestimmt. Durch die Einbindung der gemessenen hydraulischen und hydrochemischen Daten in eine Nutzwertanalyse konnten diese Parameter gewichtet werden, um so den Ansprüchen einer effektiven Grundwasseranreicherung gerecht zu werden. Im Ergebnis der durchgeführten Untersuchungen hat sich gezeigt, dass sich die Bodengruppe der Latossole besonders gut für eine Grundwasseranreicherung mit vorbehandeltem Abwasser eignet. Diese Böden weisen die besten Infiltrationsbedingungen sowie gute Sorptionseigenschaften für eine effizient gestaltete Grundwasseranreicherung auf. Mit Hilfe der GIS-basierten Nutzbarkeitsanalyse geografischer Parameter wurden Flächen ausgezeichnet, die sich in Bezug auf Gefälle, Landnutzung/Landbedeckung, Bodentiefe und einer adäquaten Distanz zu Schutzgebieten für eine Grundwasseranreicherung mit vorbehandeltem Abwasser eignen. Zusätzlich wurden die mit Hilfe der Nutzwertanalyse kategorisierten Böden in die Flächenidentifizierung einbezogen. Das Resultat dieser Arbeit liegt in Form einer Karte vor, in der die Gebiete, die für eine Grundwasseranreicherung mit vorbehandeltem Abwasser geeignet sind, nach Kategorien geordnet, verzeichnet sind. Zusätzlich dazu liefert die Arbeit entscheidende Hinweise auf Bodeneigenschaften, die sich positiv auf eine Abwasserinfiltration auswirken. Darüber hinaus konnte durch das geoelektrische 3D-Monitoring und der dabei gemessenen Verteilung des spezifischen elektrischen Widerstandes gezeigt werden, dass die Infiltration gravitativ gesteuert nur die Bodenzone direkt unterhalb der Verrieselung beeinflusste. Weiterhin wurde festgestellt, dass das Proxy des geoelektrischen Widerstandes im Labormaßstab nicht aussagekräftig genug ist, um Rückschlüsse auf die Sorption leitfähigkeitsrelevanter Abwasserinhaltsstoffe geben zu können.

The Distrito Federal in Western Central Brazil is characterized by a high share of urban population and a predicted growth of population. The corresponding increasing water consumption is associated with a falling groundwater table. The existing wastewater treatment plants could reach their capacity limits due to further increasing amounts of urban wastewater in conjunction with heavy precipitation events. During these events, untreated wastewater can become a contamination source for protected resources such as soil and water. This problem can be solved by soil aquifer recharge. This is a unique technique to take the load off the treatment plants, to store the water in the aquifer, and to improve the water quality during the soil passage. The controlled infiltration of pretreated municipal wastewater in the tropical soils can ensure the regional groundwater balance and backup high quality water as a suitable drinking water resource. The objective of the present thesis was to define suitable soils and areas for a soil aquifer treatment in the Distrito Federal to support the decentralized wastewater treatment management. For the identification of suitable soils, representative samples were taken. The soil samples were examined with respect to their pedological and geochemical properties. For the characterization of the unsaturated hydraulic conditions, in situ infiltration tests and a 3D infiltration monitoring were performed. Additionally, the retention potentials for sewage ingredients were determined for each soil with unsaturated, hydrochemical and geoelectrical column tests. Thus, it was possible to calculate the retention potentials of each soil against the wastewater content of an artificial wastewater. The artificial wastewater with known composition was infiltrated through the soil columns. The retention potentials of the soils were calculated by balancing the hydrochemical data. Afterwards, for the implementation of the hydraulic data and the data from the column tests, a utility analysis was performed to merge all parameters. Finally, the field and laboratory studies were combined within a GIS-based usability analysis to blend the determined parameter with geo-data to identify suitable areas for a soil aquifer treatment. Parameters as slope, land use and land cover were included in this analysis. After the evaluation of the hydrochemical balances, predominantly the younger soils turn out as suitable for an artificial recharge with water of impaired quality because of their high retention potential for TOC. The Gleissolo featured a retention potential of almost 100 % for TOC. However, a high hydraulic conductivity in the soils is necessary to ensure an effective artificial recharge. The Gleissolo featured the lowest measured hydraulic conductivity in the field test with 1,12 x 10-8 m/s. Due to the consideration of the determined hydraulic and hydrochemical data in the utility analysis, each parameter was weighted to embrace the requirement of an effective artificial recharge. The results of the laboratory and field tests have shown that the soil group of Latossolos is suitable for a soil aquifer treatment. These soils offer the best infiltration characteristics and a good retention potential against sewage ingredients for an effective artificial groundwater recharge with pretreated wastewater. Additional to that, slope, land use/land cover, depth of soil, and a defined distance to conservation area were considered in a GIS-based usability analysis. Additionally, the categorized soils from the utility analysis were included to identify suitable regions. The outcome of the thesis is a GIS-based usability analysis map which shows suitable areas for a soil aquifer treatment ranked by their category of suitability. Additionally, the thesis provides crucial evidences for soil parameters which have positive effects on wastewater infiltration. In addition, the 3D infiltration monitoring and the measured resistivity distribution showed that the gravitatively controlled infiltration influences only the soil zone immediately beneath the irrigation. Furthermore, it was found that the proxy of the geoelectrical resistivity is not (sufficiently) conclusive for the sorption potential of conductive wastewater ingredients. / O Distrito Federal, localizado no Centro-Oeste Brasileiro, é caracterizado por um intenso processo de urbanização o qual deve aumentar ainda mais nas próximas décadas. O correspondente crescimento no consumo de água está, também, associado ao rebaixamento dos níveis das águas subterrâneas. O atual sistema de tratamento de efluentes pode atingir seu limite de operação diante do crescimento demográfico e aumento de eventos extremos de chuva. Durante esses eventos, efluentes não tratados podem tornar-se uma fonte de contaminação aos recursos hídricos e solos. Uma solução é recarga artificial de águas subterrâneas. A mesma armazena o efluente pré-tratado nas águas subterrâneas e melhora a qualidade do mesmo durante o processo de percolação no solo. A infiltração controlada em solos tropicais pode contribuir para a qualidade das águas subterrâneas e balanço hídrico, servindo assim como fonte para o abastecimento de água. Essa tese tem como objetivo a identificação de áreas e solos propícios à recarga artificial de águas subterrâneas no Distrito Federal a fim de dar suporte à gestão decentralizada de tratamento de efluentes. Para a identificação dessas áreas, amostras representativas à diferentes tipos de solos foram obtidas. As amostras foram examinadas de acordo com suas propriedades pedológicas e geoquímicas. Para a caracterização das condições hidráulicas não saturadas, realizaram-se diversos testes de infiltração in situ, bem como o monitoramento 3D. Ainda, determinou-se para cada solo o potencial de retenção de poluentes através de testes de coluna insaturados, hidroquímico e geoelétricos. Dessa forma foi possível calcular os potenciais de retenção para cada solo quando utilizados efluentes sintéticos. Com base na contabilização de todos os dados hidroquímicos, calculou-se os potenciais de retenção de poluentes para o determinado efluente de composição conhecida. Mais a frente, para a implementação de dados hidráulicos e dados dos testes de coluna, utilizou-se uma análise de utilidade considerando todos os parâmetros. Finalmente, estudos de laboratório e campo foram combinados em uma análise baseada em sistema de informação geográfica (SIG). O mesmo permite o cruzamento de um determinado parâmetro obtido com uma base de dados georeferenciados (p. ex. classes de solos) a fim de identificar as áreas mais propícias. Parâmetros tais como declividade, uso e cobertura de solo foram incluídos nessa análise. Após a avaliação dos balanços hidroquímicos, identificou-se que os solos jovens possuem um alto potencial de retenção de carbono orgânico total (COT). Os mesmos mostraram-se adequados para recarga de águas subterrâneas com efluente residuário pré-tratado. Como exemplo, o Gleisolo apresentou um potencial de retenção de aproximadamente 100% de COT. No entanto, é importante lembrar que, a fim de garantir uma retenção efetiva, a condutividade hidráulica do solo deve ser alta. Nesse caso, o Gleisolo apresentou baixos valores no teste de campo com uma condutividade hidráulica de 1,12 x 10-8 m/s. Ainda, os dados hidráulicos e hidroquímicos medidos foram integrados à uma análise de uso-benefício. No caso, cada parâmetro recebe um peso de modo a atender às demandas de uma recarga efetiva de águas subterrâneas. Resultados mostram que o grupo de solo classificado com Latossolo é propício para a recarga de águas subterrâneas. O mesmo oferece a melhor característica de infiltração e potencial de retenção de contaminantes para uma recarga artificial com efluentes pré-tratados. Declividade, uso e ocupação de solo, profundidade do solo e uma distância devida de áreas de conservação foram contemplados na análise de utilidade baseada em SIG. Além disso, os colos caracterizados pela análise de uso-benefício foram incluídos com o intuito de identificar as regiões mais propícias para a prática. O resultado da tese é uma representação gráfica georeferenciada das áreas propícias para a aplicação de recarga artificial de águas subterrâneas. Ainda, a tese fornece evidências cruciais de parâmetros do solo que tem efeitos positivos na infiltração de efluentes pré-tratados. O monitoramento 3D de infiltração e a distribuição de resistividade medida mostram que infiltração controlada por gravidade influencia apenas a zona do solo imediata à superfície de irrigação. Mas a frente, foi determinado que o proxy da resistividade geoelétrica não é válido para o potencial de retenção de contaminantes condutores. / Der Distrito Federal ist durch eine starke Urbanisierung geprägt. Das ohnehin bereits starke Bevölkerungswachstum wird Prognosen zufolge weiter zunehmen. Der damit verbundene Anstieg des Wasserverbrauchs wird auch in absinkenden Grundwasserständen widergespiegelt. Weiterhin ist das westliche Zentralbrasilien aufgrund seiner Lage in den wechselfeuchten Tropen durch eine starke Saisonalität der Niederschläge geprägt. Das erhöhte Abwasseraufkommen in Verbindung mit extremen Niederschlagsereignissen kann zu einer deutlichen Überbelastung der vorhandenen Kläranlagen führen. In Extremsituationen kann ungeklärtes Abwasser in die Bodenzone gelangen und somit Schutzgüter wie Boden und Wasser kontaminieren. Eine effiziente Maßnahme gegenüber der unkontrollierten Versickerung von ungeklärtem Abwasser sowie zur Vorbeugung absinkender Grundwasserspiegel ist die gezielte Infiltration von vorbehandeltem Abwasser in Verbindung mit einer Grundwasseranreicherung. Diese Maßnahme umfasst einen zusätzlichen Reinigungsschritt des vorgereinigten Abwassers und dient zur Vorbeugung gegenüber absinkenden Grundwasserspiegeln. Ziel der Arbeit war es, geeignete Böden und Flächen für eine Grundwasseranreicherung mit vorbehandeltem Abwasser im Distrito Federal auszuweisen. Zur Identifizierung geeigneter Böden wurden repräsentative Bodenproben auf ihre pedologischen und geochemischen Eigenschaften hin untersucht. Zusätzlich wurden in situ Durchlässigkeitstests und ein Versickerungsmonitoring aufgebaut, um zur Klärung der Infiltrationseigenschaften beizutragen. Für die Laboruntersuchungen wurden die Bodenproben im Hinblick auf ihre Schadstoffrückhaltepotentiale untersucht. Dazu wurden kombinierte hydrochemische und geoelektrische sowie ungesättigte Säulenversuche durchgeführt. Dadurch war es möglich, Rückschlüsse auf die Sorptionsleistung der Böden gegenüber den Abwasserinhaltsstoffen einer künstlichen Abwasserlösung schließen zu können. Die Bodensäulen wurden mit einem künstlichen Abwasser mit bekannter Schadstoffzusammensetzung überstaut. Auf der Grundlage der Bilanzierung aller hydrochemischen Daten wurden die Schadstoffrückhaltepotentiale für die Abwasserinhaltsstoffe berechnet. Anschließend wurden die experimentell ermittelten Parameter in einer Nutzwertanalyse zusammengefasst, um so geeignete Böden für eine effiziente Grundwasseranreicherung mit vorbehandeltem Abwasser zu identifizieren. Abschließend wurden die Feld- und Laboruntersuchungen mit einer GIS-basierten Nutzbarkeitsanalyse komplettiert, um die gemessenen Parameter mit weiteren vorliegenden, räumlich aufgelösten Daten verschneiden zu können. In diese Analyse wurden Parameter wie Gefälle, Landnutzung und Landbedeckung einbezogen. Bei der Auswertung der hydrochemischen Bilanzen kristallisierten sich vorwiegend die jungen Böden aufgrund ihrer hohen Schadstoffrückhaltepotentiale als geeignete Böden für eine Grundwasseranreicherung mit vorbehandeltem Abwasser heraus. Exemplarisch wies der Gleissolo ein Sorptionspotential von fast 100 % für den Parameter TOC auf. Allerdings müssen Böden für eine effektive Grundwasseranreicherung mit vorbehandeltem Abwasser zusätzlich zu den hohen Sorptionsleistungen auch hohe hydraulische Durchlässigkeiten aufweisen. Für den Gleissolo wurde im Feldversuch die niedrigste hydraulische Durchlässigkeit von 1,12 x 10-8 m/s bestimmt. Durch die Einbindung der gemessenen hydraulischen und hydrochemischen Daten in eine Nutzwertanalyse konnten diese Parameter gewichtet werden, um so den Ansprüchen einer effektiven Grundwasseranreicherung gerecht zu werden. Im Ergebnis der durchgeführten Untersuchungen hat sich gezeigt, dass sich die Bodengruppe der Latossole besonders gut für eine Grundwasseranreicherung mit vorbehandeltem Abwasser eignet. Diese Böden weisen die besten Infiltrationsbedingungen sowie gute Sorptionseigenschaften für eine effizient gestaltete Grundwasseranreicherung auf. Mit Hilfe der GIS-basierten Nutzbarkeitsanalyse geografischer Parameter wurden Flächen ausgezeichnet, die sich in Bezug auf Gefälle, Landnutzung/Landbedeckung, Bodentiefe und einer adäquaten Distanz zu Schutzgebieten für eine Grundwasseranreicherung mit vorbehandeltem Abwasser eignen. Zusätzlich wurden die mit Hilfe der Nutzwertanalyse kategorisierten Böden in die Flächenidentifizierung einbezogen. Das Resultat dieser Arbeit liegt in Form einer Karte vor, in der die Gebiete, die für eine Grundwasseranreicherung mit vorbehandeltem Abwasser geeignet sind, nach Kategorien geordnet, verzeichnet sind. Zusätzlich dazu liefert die Arbeit entscheidende Hinweise auf Bodeneigenschaften, die sich positiv auf eine Abwasserinfiltration auswirken. Darüber hinaus konnte durch das geoelektrische 3D-Monitoring und der dabei gemessenen Verteilung des spezifischen elektrischen Widerstandes gezeigt werden, dass die Infiltration gravitativ gesteuert nur die Bodenzone direkt unterhalb der Verrieselung beeinflusste. Weiterhin wurde festgestellt, dass das Proxy des geoelektrischen Widerstandes im Labormaßstab nicht aussagekräftig genug ist, um Rückschlüsse auf die Sorption leitfähigkeitsrelevanter Abwasserinhaltsstoffe geben zu können.

Pickling is a unit operation within stainless steel production, which means treating the steel with hydrofluoric acid (HF) and nitric acid (HNO3), also called mixed acid. The whole process generates waste water streams which have to be treated before released to recipient. The aim of this degree thesis was to make an evaluation of different possibilities for reduction of emissions from the pickling process with China as a possible future market. The work consisted of two different parts; the first was to describe and evaluate different treatment methods for waste pickling acid, with emphasis on denitrification technologies. The second and main part was to make a fundamental description of the neutralisation process and outline important parameters. The work was performed by gathering information from literature but also from industry in both Sweden and China. The work has been a collaboration between the Royal Institute of Technology (KTH), the Swedish Environmental Institute (IVL) and the company Scanacon. A review of the different acid recovery methods; ionic exchange, diffusion dialysis and extraction was made. The study showed that ionic exchange is a robust method with relatively low cost and therefore it has been largely implemented both in Swedish and Chinese industry. The outflow however still requires neutralisation. Nitrate reduction can be performed as “end of pipe”, those methods investigated in this study were; biological treatment, reverse osmosis and nanofiltration. Meanwhile, internal solutions such as evaporation and electro-dialysis are two interesting technologies which reduce nitrates in combination with acid recovery. It was found that slaked lime (Ca(OH)2) is the most suitable neutralisation agent for pickling waste and, besides the choice of chemicals, many important parameters influence the process, such as the optimal pH, mixing and conditions during lime slaking. Based on information from one of the visited sites in Sweden a mass balance of the neutralisation facility was made and from that the required amount of Ca(OH)2 was calculated. The calculations were verified by an experimental part performed by IVL, using pickling acids from the same site. The amount of metals in the outgoing water was calculated using software “Medusa” but also by equilibrium equations. However, the results differed somewhat; this is probably due to the fact that Medusa takes other complexes and their interaction, besides the formed metal hydroxides, into consideration. Within the mining industry research has been made on different methods for neutralisation and some have been tested in field. An example is the High Density Sludge process (HDS), were an amount of sludge is recycled back to the neutralisation tank. It was shown that this gave improved sludge properties and decreased lime consumption. This could perhaps also be implemented for waste water in the stainless steel industry, and the method was also tested during the experimental part of this project. The dry content increased after a number of cycles but further investigation is required before any conclusion can be drawn. / Betning är en enhetsprocess inom tillverkningen av rostfritt stål då godset behandlas med fluorväte syra (HF) och salpetersyra (HNO3), också kallad blandsyra. Betningen ger upphov till vatten strömmar som måste behandlas innan de släpps ut till recipienten. Syftet med det här examensarbetet var att göra en utvärdering av olika tekniker för att reducera utsläpp till vatten från betningen med Kina som potentiell framtida marknad. Arbetet bestod av två delar; den första delen var att beskriva och utvärdera olika behandlingsmetoder av förbrukade betbad med betoning på denitrifikationstekniker. Den andra och största delen var att göra en grundläggande beskrivning av neutralisationsprocessen. Studien utfördes genom att inhämta information från litteratur samt från industrin i både Sverige och Kina. Arbetet har varit ett samarbetsprojekt mellan Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan (KTH), Svenska miljöinstitutet (IVL) och företaget Scanacon.    Arbetet behandlar syraåtervinningsystemen; jonbytare, diffusions dialys samt extraktion. Nitrat reduktion kan ske internt eller externt där de externa åtgärder som behandlas i denna rapport är biologisk rening, omvänd osmos och nanofiltrering. De interna metoderna avdunstning och elektrodialys är intressanta eftersom de återvinner syran samtidigt som de reducerar nitraterna avsevärt. Studien visade att jonbyte, på grund av dess robusthet och relativt låga kostnad är den mest implementerade metoden för syraåtervinning i både svensk och kinesisk industri idag. Restprodukten från jonbytaren kräver dock fortsatt behandling, där det traditionella valet är neutralisation. Studien visade att släckt kalk (Ca(OH)2) är det mest passande kemikalien för neutralisation av betsyror. Förutom kemikalieval så finns det många parametrar som påverkar effektiviteten hos processen så som pH, omrörning och förhållanden under kalksläckningen. Baserat på information ifrån ett av de besökta stålverken i Sverige, gjordes en massbalans över dess neutralisationanläggning. Utifrån de flöden som denna gav kunde den teoretiska mängden kalk som krävdes för utfällning räknas ut. Beräkningarna verifierades med en experimentell del som utfördes av IVL på betsyror från samma verk. Resthalterna av metall i utgående vatten beräknades med programmet ”Medusa” men också med jämviktsekvationer. Resultaten mellan de två skiljde sig, detta beror förmodligen på att Medusa förutom hydroxidutfällning tar hänsyn till andra utfällningskomplex och dess interaktioner. Inom gruvvatten industrin har det forskats en del kring olika neutralisationsmetoder, en i litteraturen föreslagen sådan är ”High Density Sludge process (HDS)”. Här återförs en del av slammet tillbaka till neutralisationssteget, vilket visade sig ge förbättrade slamegenskaper och minskad kalkåtgång. Det var intressant att undersöka om denna metod också gick att implementera på förbrukade betbad och därför prövades metoden i den experimentella delen av detta projekt. Detta gav efter ett antal återföringscykler högre torrhalt på slammet, dock krävs fortsatta undersökningar innan någon slutsats kan dras.

Tesis por compendio / [ES] The pursuit of sustainable development in urban areas is crucial due to their significance as the primary human habitat and resource consumer. Rapid urbanization poses significant challenges for city management, necessitating actions to ensure sustainability and mitigate resource depletion. The conservation of water resources turns out to be an important focus, particularly in society's development due to the number of factors that depend on this resource. Water resources are essential for, serving critical roles in human health, agriculture, and industry, while also facilitating economic activities, cultural values, and climate regulation. In this context, the sustainability of water systems encompasses social, environmental, economic, and asset dimensions. Nevertheless, the accelerated social growth, exacerbates the strain on water supplies, necessitating measures to ensure sustainability. Key considerations include ensuring equitable access to water services, minimizing environmental impact, implementing cost-effective policies, and enhancing infrastructure resilience. Adopting sustainable practices encounters obstacles, particularly in data measurement and analysis, hindered by the complexities of emerging technologies. Addressing these challenges requires leveraging indicators to assess progress towards Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) quantitatively. Despite significant strides, evaluating progress toward SDGs remains a complex task, particularly in urban water systems. Consequently, ongoing efforts are essential to advance sustainable development initiatives and ensure the long-term viability of urban water resources. Even though the SDGs have motivated several projects to advance sustainable development. However, it is complex to determine the progress made in fulfilling these goals, especially in particular cases like urban water systems. The development of a framework to measure sustainability in urban water systems contributes to the decision- making process to optimize system performance across the entire water cycle. These decision-making processes are crucial for various stakeholders, including governmental entities, the general population, and, of course, water resource managers. Considering the above, the main objective of this doctoral thesis consists of the development of a methodology to measure and categorize hydraulic systems according to their contribution to sustainability from their three dimensions. The methodology is based on the implementation of a series of indicators linked to each of the goals of the Sustainable Development Goals established by the UN. In this way and as a result of this work, it will be possible to categorize any type of urban water system with labels that indicate the level of contribution to achieving the SDGs and highlight the importance of water resources in meeting the SDGs. Also, another objective of the methodology's implementation is to validate by assessing the progress of the indicators if it is sufficient, or if acceleration and additional measures are required. This will serve as a benchmarking tool, as a support point for decision-making by the different actors involved in hydraulic management, thus achieving more sustainable water management. To achieve this objective, the doctoral thesis has been developed in three phases, the results of which have been published in 3 articles in indexed journals (JCR). The phases of work development are as follows: (i) Contextualization and development of the methodology (Publication I): an investigation was carried out on the concept of sustainability and what it encompassed, as well as the definition of the goals, their progress, and indicators currently used by both the UN and other entities for the evaluation of these. To complement this, case studies of urban hydraulic systems in which sustainability was evaluated were reviewed. Based on the information collected and as a result of the research, the evaluation methodolo / [CA] La cerca del desenvolupament sostenible en les zones urbanes és crucial a causa de la seua importància com a principal hàbitat humà i consumidor de recursos. La ràpida urbanització planteja desafiaments importants per a la gestió de la ciutat, la qual cosa requerix accions per a garantir la sostenibilitat i mitigar l'esgotament dels recursos. La conservació del recurs hídric resulta ser un focus important, particularment en el desenvolupament de la societat a causa de la quantitat de factors que depenen d'este recurs. Els recursos hídrics són essencials per a exercir funcions crítiques en la salut humana, l'agricultura i la indústria, al mateix temps que faciliten les activitats econòmiques, els valors culturals i la regulació del clima. En este context, la sostenibilitat dels sistemes hídrics abasta dimensions socials, ambientals, econòmiques i d'actius. No obstant això, el creixement social accelerat exacerba la pressió sobre el subministrament d'aigua, la qual cosa requerix mesures per a garantir la sostenibilitat. Les consideracions clau en este assumpte inclouen garantir l'accés equitatiu als servicis d'aigua, minimitzar l'impacte ambiental, implementar polítiques rendibles i millorar la resiliència de la infraestructura. L'adopció de pràctiques sostenibles troba obstacles, particularment en el mesurament i anàlisi de dades, obstaculitzats per les complexitats de les tecnologies emergents. Per a abordar estos desafiaments és necessari aprofitar els indicadors per a avaluar quantitativament el progrés cap als Objectius de Desenvolupament Sostenible (*ODS). Malgrat els importants avanços, avaluar el progrés cap als *ODS continua sent una tasca complexa, particularment en els sistemes d'aigua urbans. En conseqüència, els esforços continus són essencials per a promoure iniciatives de desenvolupament sostenible i garantir la viabilitat a llarg termini dels recursos hídrics urbans. Encara que els *ODS han motivat diversos projectes per a avançar en el desenvolupament sostenible. No obstant això, és complex determinar els avanços en el compliment d'estes metes, especialment en casos particulars com els sistemes d'aigua urbans. El desenvolupament d'un marc per a mesurar la sostenibilitat en els sistemes d'aigua urbans contribuïx al procés de presa de decisions per a optimitzar el rendiment del sistema al llarg de tot el cicle de l'aigua. Estos processos de presa de decisions són crucials per a diverses parts interessades, incloses entitats governamentals, la població en general i, per descomptat, els administradors de recursos hídrics. Considerant l'anterior, l'objectiu principal d'esta tesi doctoral consistix en el desenvolupament d'una metodologia per a mesurar i categoritzar els sistemes hidràulics segons la seua contribució a la sostenibilitat des de les seues tres dimensions. La metodologia es basa en la implementació d'una sèrie d'indicadors vinculats a cadascuna de les metes dels Objectius de Desenvolupament Sostenible establits per l'ONU. D'esta manera i com a resultat d'este treball, serà possible categoritzar qualsevol tipus de sistema d'aigua urbà amb etiquetes que indiquen el nivell de contribució a l'assoliment dels *ODS i ressalten la importància dels recursos hídrics en el compliment dels *ODS. Així mateix, un altre objectiu de la implementació de la metodologia és validar avaluant l'avanç dels indicadors si és suficient, o si es requerix acceleració i mesures addicionals. Això servirà com a ferramenta de benchmarking, com a punt de suport per a la presa de decisions dels diferents actors implicats en la gestió hidràulica, aconseguint així una gestió més sostenible de l'aigua. Per a aconseguir este objectiu, la tesi doctoral s'ha desenvolupat en tres fases, els resultats de les quals s'han publicat en 3 articles en revistes indexades (*JCR). Les fases del desenvolupament del treball són les següents: (i) Contextualització i desenvolupament de la metodologia (Publicació I): es va realitzar una investigació sobre e / [EN] The pursuit of sustainable development in urban areas is crucial due to their significance as the primary human habitat and resource consumer. Rapid urbanization poses significant challenges for city management, necessitating actions to ensure sustainability and mitigate resource depletion. The conservation of water resources turns out to be an important focus, particularly in society's development due to the number of factors that depend on this resource. Water resources are essential for, serving critical roles in human health, agriculture, and industry, while also facilitating economic activities, cultural values, and climate regulation. In this context, the sustainability of water systems encompasses social, environmental, economic, and asset dimensions. Nevertheless, the accelerated social growth, exacerbates the strain on water supplies, necessitating measures to ensure sustainability. Key considerations include ensuring equitable access to water services, minimizing environmental impact, implementing cost-effective policies, and enhancing infrastructure resilience. Adopting sustainable practices encounters obstacles, particularly in data measurement and analysis, hindered by the complexities of emerging technologies. Addressing these challenges requires leveraging indicators to assess progress towards Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) quantitatively. Despite significant strides, evaluating progress toward SDGs remains a complex task, particularly in urban water systems. Consequently, ongoing efforts are essential to advance sustainable development initiatives and ensure the long-term viability of urban water resources. Even though the SDGs have motivated several projects to advance sustainable development. However, it is complex to determine the progress made in fulfilling these goals, especially in particular cases like urban water systems. The development of a framework to measure sustainability in urban water systems contributes to the decision- making process to optimize system performance across the entire water cycle. These decision-making processes are crucial for various stakeholders, including governmental entities, the general population, and, of course, water resource managers. Considering the above, the main objective of this doctoral thesis consists of the development of a methodology to measure and categorize hydraulic systems according to their contribution to sustainability from their three dimensions. The methodology is based on the implementation of a series of indicators linked to each of the goals of the Sustainable Development Goals established by the UN. In this way and as a result of this work, it will be possible to categorize any type of urban water system with labels that indicate the level of contribution to achieving the SDGs and highlight the importance of water resources in meeting the SDGs. Also, another objective of the methodology's implementation is to validate by assessing the progress of the indicators if it is sufficient, or if acceleration and additional measures are required. This will serve as a benchmarking tool, as a support point for decision-making by the different actors involved in hydraulic management, thus achieving more sustainable water management. To achieve this objective, the doctoral thesis has been developed in three phases, the results of which have been published in 3 articles in indexed journals (JCR). The phases of work development are as follows: (i) Contextualization and development of the methodology (Publication I): an investigation was carried out on the concept of sustainability and what it encompassed, as well as the definition of the goals, their progress, and indicators currently used by both the UN and other entities for the evaluation of these. To complement this, case studies of urban hydraulic systems in which sustainability was evaluated were reviewed. Based on the information collected and as a result of the research, the evaluation methodolo / Garcia Rodriguez, CA. (2024). Development of a Methodology to Characterize Sustainability in Hidraulic Systems by Applying Indicators that Evaluate Goals Contained in the Sustainable Development Goals [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/213236 / Compendio