Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Concerns about the sufficiency of freshwater supplies and the impact of water shortages have placed sustainable water management on the global agenda. This is particularly relevant in South Africa, a country with precipitation rates well below the global average and water resources that have become highly polluted. The scarcity of water for consumption use and of unpolluted water bodies as recreational and environmental good highlights the need for an economic analysis of these issues. This dissertation investigates some economic aspects of water management in the South African context in two distinctive parts. Part One (Chapters 2 to 5) aims to provide an understanding of urban water demand and analyses water pricing as demand management tool. Part Two (Chapters 6 and 7) analyses the values people attach to water resources for recreational and environmental purposes. Quantitative methodological approaches are predominantly used to inform an economic perspective on water demand management. The extent of water scarcity is discussed in Chapter Two. South Africa is approaching physical water scarcity, but many poor households do not yet have access to water and basic sanitation facilities, i.e. there is also economic water scarcity. Given this background, Chapter Three focuses on water demand management as part of an integrated water management approach. The role of water prices is discussed, in particular the Increasing Block Tariff (IBT) structure which is predominantly used in South Africa. Chapter Four estimates the price elasticity of demand for water using household water consumption records obtained from the City of Cape Town (CCT). A distinctive feature of this case study is a survey undertaken to collect household information on demographic and water-use characteristics, as water databases are severely lacking in South Africa. The results show water demand to be mostly price inelastic, which concurs with findings from international empirical literature. Furthermore, higher-income households are found to be more sensitive to price changes, thus some reduction in water consumption can be achieved by increasing marginal prices at the upper end of the IBT structure. Chapter Five analyses the IBT structure as a redistributive tool. Particular attention is given to the Free Basic Water policy of South Africa, which allows each household to receive six kilolitres of water free per month. Empirical modelling indicates that the IBT structure in its current form holds limited benefits for the poor, given the state of service delivery in South Africa: the lack of access to the water network prevents the poorest households from being the recipients of the cross-subsidisation occurring in an IBT structure. Part Two studies urban water resources as recreational and environmental goods. The literature review of environmental valuation techniques in Chapter Six places particular emphasis on the Contingent Valuation Method. This method is applied in Chapter Seven, where the value of improving the environmental quality of a freshwater urban lake is analysed in a middle- to low-income urban area. Another survey was undertaken specifically for this purpose of gauging the willingness to pay for improved recreational facilities and water quality of Zeekoevlei. The results show that low-income households do attach value to urban environmental goods, a result which adds to our knowledge of willingness to pay for environmental goods in developing countries. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Besorgdheid oor die toereikenheid van varswaterbronne en die impak van watertekorte het volhoubare waterbestuur op die wêreldagenda geplaas. Dit is veral relevant vir Suid- Afrika, 'n land met neerslagkoerse ver onder die wêreld gemiddelde en waterbronne wat hoogs besoedeld geword het. Die skaarsheid van water vir verbruik en van onbesoedelde waterbronne as ontspannings- en omgewingsproduk, beklemtoon die noodsaaklikheid vir 'n ekonomiese analise van hierdie kwessies. Hierdie proefskrif ondersoek sekere ekonomiese aspekte van waterbestuur in die Suid-Afrikaanse konteks, in twee dele. Deel Een (Hoofstukke Twee tot Vyf) beoog om insig te verskaf oor die stedelike vraag na water en analiseer die prys van water as 'n vraagbestuursmaatstaf. Deel Twee (Hoofstukke Ses en Sewe) ontleed die waarde wat mense heg aan waterbronne vir ontspannings- en omgewingsdoeleindes. Kwantitatiewe metodologiese benaderinge word hoofsaaklik gebruik om 'n ekonomiese perspektief op watervraag bestuur toe te lig. Die omvang van waterskaarsheid in Suid-Afrika word in Hoofstuk Twee bespreek. Hierdie hoofstuk dui aan dat Suid-Afrika besig is om fisiese waterskaarste te bereik, maar die land het ook baie arm huishoudings wat nog nie toegang tot water en basiese sanitasiefasiliteite het nie, dw.s. wat daar is ook ekonomiese waterskaarsheid. Gegewe hierdie agtergrond, fokus Hoofstuk Drie op watervraagbestuur, as deel van 'n geïntegreerde waterbestuursbenadering. Die rol van waterpryse word bespreek, veral die Stygende-Blok-Tarief (SBT) struktuur wat grotendeels in Suid-Afrika gebruik word. Hoofstuk Vier bepaal die pryselastisiteit van vraag vir water met behulp van huishoudelike waterverbruiksdata, verkry vanaf die Stad Kaapstad. 'n Kenmerkende eienskap van hierdie gevallestudie is die ingesamelde huishoudelike inligting oor demografiese en waterverbruik-eienskappe, aangesien daar ‘n groot tekort aan water-databasisse in Suid- Afrika is. Die uitslae toon dat watervraag meestal prysonelasties is, wat ooreenstem met bevindinge van ander empiriese literatuur. Verder word gevind dat hoё-inkomste huishoudings meer sensitief is vir prysveranderinge. Dus sal 'n afname in waterverbruik bewerkstellig kan word deur marginale pryse aan die hoёr kant van die SBT struktuur te verhoog. Hoofstuk Vyf ondersoek die SBT struktuur as 'n effektiewe herverdelingsmaatstaf. Spesifieke aandag word aan die Gratis Basiese Water-beleid van Suid-Afrika geskenk, wat voorsiening maak dat elke huishouding ses kiloliter water per maand verniet ontvang. Die bevindinge van empiriese modellering is dat die SBT struktuur, soos dit tans in Suid-Afrika toegepas word, beperkte voordele vir die armes inhou, gegewe die huidige stand van watervoorsiening in Suid-Afrika. As gevolg van die agterstand met betrekking tot toegang tot water, ontvang die heel armes nie die voordele van kruissubsidiёring wat plaasvind onder 'n SBT struktuur nie. Deel Twee bestudeer stedelike waterbronne as ontspannings- en omgewingsprodukte. Hoofstuk Ses verskaf 'n literatuur oorsig oor omgewingswaardasie tegnieke, met 'n spesieke fokus op die Kontingente Waardasie-metode. Hierdie metode word in Hoofstuk Sewe toegepas, waar die waarde van verbeteringe in die omgewingskwaliteit van 'n varswatermeer in 'n middel- tot lae-komste stedelike gebied ondersoek word. Nog 'n opname is gedoen met die doel om die bereidwilligheid om te betaal vir verbeterde ontspanningsfasiliteite en die waterkwaliteit van Zeekoevlei te meet. Die bevindinge toon dat lae-inkomste huishoudings wel waarde heg aan stedelike omgewingsprodukte.

Energy and environmental impacts are two factors that will influence urban region composition in the near future. One emerging issue is the effect on water usage resulting from changes in regional or urban transportation trends. With many regions experiencing stresses on water availability, transportation planners and users need to combine information on transportation-related water consumption for any region and assess potential impacts on local water resources from the expansion of alternative transportation modes. This thesis will focus on use-phase water consumption factors for multiple vehicle modes, energy and fuel pathways, roads, and vehicle infrastructure for a given transportation network. While there are studies examining life cycle impacts for energy generation and vehicle usage, few repeatable models exist for assessing overall water consumption across several transportation modes within urban regions. As such, the question is: is it possible to develop a traceable decision support model that combines and assesses water consumption from transportation modes and related mobility infrastructure for a given mobility network? Based on this, an object-oriented system model of transportation elements was developed using the Systems Modeling Language (SysML) and Model-Based Systems Engineering principles to compare water consumption across vehicle modes for assessing the resiliency of existing infrastructure and water resources. To demonstrate the intent of this model, daily network usage water consumption will be analyzed for current and alternative network scenarios projected by policies regarding the expansion of alternative energy. The model is expected to show variations in water consumption due to fluctuations in energy pathways, market shares, and driving conditions, from which the model should help determine the feasibility of expanding alterative vehicles and fuels in these networks. While spatially explicit data is limited compared to the national averages that are used as model inputs, the analytical framework within this model closely follows that of existing assessments and the reusable nature of SysML model elements allows for the future expansion of additional transportation modes and infrastructure as well as other environmental analyses.

Water is a vital component for human survival but unsustainable patterns of water consumption are still evident internationally. In South Africa, water conservation has traditionally been limited to the responsibility of the state, with little effort being made by the consumers. However, as water scarcity increasingly becomes a problem, government and residents need to find out how urban South Africans can access water and implement water conservation methods in their homes without the support of government supervision programmes. This study explores the relationship between urban residences in two different parts of Johannesburg (Meadowlands in Soweto and Florida in Roodepoort) and their consumption, perception and usage of water and its conservation. Based on interviews with residents from different backgrounds, the results of this research show that residents have varied but generally limited concern for water issues. Findings from this study indicate that for a resident to conserve water, the type of abode in which he/she lives is irrelevant. Whether the resident lives in suburban home or small government funded housing, the attitudes of the interviewees and the perceptions which they expressed regarding solutions to the water dilemma proved to be similar: people in these urban areas are aware of the importance of water conservation, however, there is limited practice thereof. / Geography / M. Sc. (Geography)

MPH / Department of Public Health

MENVM / Department of Geography and Geo-Information Science / See the attached abstract below

MESHWR / Department of Hydrology and Water Resources / Water scarcity has become a constraint for sustainable development in the higher education institutions in South Africa including University of Venda. Water infrastructure is one of the major challenges within higher education institutions, the existing water supply infrastructure is over 20 years old and was not planned for the current population. This study aimed at developing a water management plan for higher education institutions in South Africa using the University of Venda as a case study. A water resource management plan provides a road map for reducing water consumption while encouraging sustainable water utilisation. Evaluation was done within the institution to identify water sources, water resources infrastructure and water utilisation. The study employed questionnaire survey to collect data on water consumption, to evaluate issues of the institutional participation in resolving the water problems within the institution and deduce water wastage. Water supply data was obtained from meter readings and water invoices obtained from Vhembe District Municipality and University of Venda. The latter were used to determine water consumption within the institution. Based on the sample size, the results indicated the estimated amount of water consumed daily by UNIVEN population is 66 341.9 l/d excluding water utilised at the cafeteria, car wash and auditorium. The average water supplied to UNIVEN in 2017 was 67 642. 25 mega litres/month, this indicates that more water is supplied to the institution since the estimated institutional water demand excluding illegal students in the residence halls ranged between 415 740 l/d and 597 620 l/d of water while the estimated institutional water demand including illegal students varied between 282 2610 l/d and 406 6580 l/d. The latter further indicates that there is water wastage within the institution because the water supplied monthly to the institution was in mega litres as indicated in the invoices, but the results indicated that the amount of water utilised daily within the institution was in litres, this clearly shows that the respondents under estimated the amount of water they utilise. The average amount of water used by students residing on campus was 271 l/p/d to 735.5 l/p/d while day scholars and university staff use 55 l/p/d to 142.5 l/p/d. The average amount of water used for cleaning ranged between 1 318.5 l/d to 3 909 l/d while gardening usage ranged between 4600 l/d and 8 600 l/d. The School of Agriculture experimental farm uses 9 270.4 l/d and the university laundry was found to utilise 5 186 l/d. The university laboratories were found to utilise 125 l/d to 215 l/d per practical session with 3 to 4 practical sessions conducted per week. The study found that the total water used by construction workers for domestic purposes iv is 800 l/d. The utilisation trends showed that during the dry seasons, the university population generally used about twice as much water as compared to wet season because municipal water was supplemented by rain water for watering plants and washing the pavement. The survey results indicated that students residing in the university residences waste more water by allowing the tap to run while brushing teeth, washing dishes, excessive use of water to rinse clothes while doing laundry, opening showers and leaving the water running while waiting for a desired water temperature. Activities such as watering flowers and lawn in an unmonitored manner and pavement washing in which the hose pipe runs for several hours during watering and pavement washing result in water wastage. The university does not have an environmental or water education projects that encourage students and staff to use water efficiently. Water conservation measures are lacking in the institution because there are no policies and procedures that outline how water should be utilised. The developed water management plan for University of Venda outline the current water consumption, targets for reduction, drivers for reducing water consumption and water reduction strategies. This study recommends that the University targets to reduce potable water usage by 12% in the next 5 years. The latter has been highlighted in the proposed water management plan. The proposed plan further presents a suite of strategies to reduce water usage, improve institution water resources data and to plan for the future. Water utilisation within the institution has not been efficient due to water not being utilised in a sustainable manner. Sub-metering of each building, water awareness campaign, introduction of water utilisation policies, routine inspection and maintenance of infrastructure and appointing an environmental coordinator or working with water experts in the School of Environmental Sciences will help reduce water consumption within the institution. / NRF

Water is a symbol of life. It affects all organisms on earth and its importance is emphasised in times of drought. The human population growth places more demands on our natural resources. As pressures on the available water increases, more measures are required to utilise water sustainably. South Africa is classified as a water stressed country with less than 1700 cubic meters of water available per person per year. Rand Water supplies water to approximately 11 million people in Gauteng. During times of drought, restrictions imposed are aimed mainly at the broader Green Industry. This research investigated international strategies, existing restrictions in Gauteng, and undertook a survey within the Green Industry to determine the most appropriate response. This research proposes a new water supply shortage response plan for Rand Water in Gauteng with a total of four levels of restrictions implemented at different stages of water stress in the system. / Environmental Sciences / M. Sc. (Environmental Management)

Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2002. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: A vast literature on the incompatibility of socio-economic development and environmental conservation (also referred to as sustainable development) has developed over the past few years. This study takes on the form of a critical, problemdriven discussion and evaluation of the applicability and viability of the concept of capacity-sharing to the current South African water management regime. Within the study, the complexities involved in the shift from a supply- to demandoriented management strategy are examined in depth. This transition in strategy proves to be problematic for water policy makers and managers because of past management regimes and structures, measurement related problems, incorrect or insufficient definition of criteria needed for demand-oriented approaches and the emotional complexities regarding water use. Developments in water policy are currently at a point where problems are experienced regarding the practical implementation of proposed water demand-oriented policy. The concept of capacity-sharing is explained and discussed in detail, leading to the identification of the applicability to three of the most important problems (basic contradiction within the 1998 National Water Act, initial allocation for market adoption and equity within the market) faced within the transition towards a demand-oriented approach. This study found that the concept of capacity-sharing does hold applicability in addressing the above-mentioned three problems towards the transition to a demand-side management approach. Capacity-sharing, therefore, should be part of this timely transition and the state should make use of the advantages of this concept. To support this view, seven studies are proposed for further research to address the problems as mentioned in section 5.2 of the thesis. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: 'n Uitgebreide literatuur aangaande die onversoenbaarheid van sosio-ekonomiese ontwikkeling en omgewingsbewaring (ook volhoubare ontwikkeling genoem) het oor die afgelope paar jaar ontwikkel. Hierdie studie neem die vorm van 'n kritiese, probleemgedrewe bespreking ten opsigte van die toepasbaarheid en relevansie van die konsep van kapasiteitsdeling binne die orde van huidige Suid Afrikaanse waterbestuur, aan. Die vele aspekte van die klemverskuiwing van 'n aanbod- na 'n vraag-georiënteerde waterbestuur-strategie, word ook beklemtoon. Hierdie oorgang is problematies vir waterbeleid-formuleerders en bestuurders as gevolg van vorige waterbestuur-ordes en strukture, meetbaarheid georiënteerde probleme, foutiewe of onvoldoende definieering van watergebruik-regte en die emosionele kompleksiteite van water. Tans, word probleme rakende die praktiese implementering van voorgestelde vraag-georienteerde waterbeleid ervaar. Die konsep van kapasiteitsdeling word in detail verduidelik en bespreek waarvandaan die toepasbaarheid op drie van die belangrikste probleme (basiese kontradiksie binne die 1998 Nasionale Waterwet, aanvanklike verdeling van water gebruik regte vir opname binne die mark en die kwessie van regverdigheid binne die mark) vir die oorgang na 'n vraaggeoriënteerde strategie geïdentifiseer word. Die studie het bevind dat die konsep van kapasiteitsdeling wel relevansie ten opsigte van die bogenoemde drie probleme tydens die oorgang na 'n vraag-georiënteerde strategie, inhou. Kapasiteitsdeling behoort dus deel te vorm van die oorgangsfase na 'n vraag-georiënteerde water bestuur strategie en die staat behoort gebruik te maak van die konsep se voordele. Ter ondersteuning hiervan word sewe studies voorgestel vir verdere navorsing ten opsigte van die probleme soos geïdentifiseer in afdeling 5.2 van die tesis.

Thesis (MEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The focus of the study is to theoretically assess tank-water demand and employ methods to establish the actual tank-water demand at selected houses in a case study area. This study also examines the influence of domestic rainwater harvesting systems when used in combination with a municipal water distribution system. The case study comprises of 410 low cost housing units in the Western Cape. The system demand patterns of low cost housing units are uncharacteristic, when compared with suburban system demand patterns, and cannot be defined by traditional models. Similarly, the use of rainwater harvesting systems in these areas follows an unconventional routine that is yet to be defined. A stochastic end-use model for water demand is developed which produces temporal profiles for water supplied from both sources, namely the water distribution system and the rainwater harvesting system. The model approximates a daily system and tank-water demand pattern for a single domestic household, using @RISK software. The demand estimation methodology is clarified through application on a particular case study site where harvested rainwater is frequently utilized. Estimates of the parameter values are based on consumer surveys and previous studies on the case study area, where the household size was defined in the form of a probability distribution. The results confirm the atypical system demand patterns in low cost housing units units. Although two clear peaks exist in the morning and in the evening, a relatively constant average flow is present throughout the day. A sensitivity analysis of all the model parameters verified that the household size has the most substantial influence on the tank-water demand pattern. The system and tank-water demand patterns were compared to published average daily water demand guidelines, which confirmed that increased water savings could be achieved when the rainwater source is accessible inside the household with minimal effort. The stochastic demand profiles derived as part of this research agree with the metered system demand in the same area. The results of this study could be incorporated into the future development of national standards. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die fokus van die studie is om die tenkwater-aanvraag teoreties te ontleed en metodes in werking te stel om die werklike tenkwater-aanvraag vas te stel by geselekteerde huise in ‘n gevallestudie area. Hierdie studie ondersoek ook die invloed van plaaslike reënwater-herwinningstelsels wanneer dit gebruik word in kombinasie met ‘n munisipale waterverspreidingstelsel. Die gevallestudie bestaan uit 410 laekoste behuisingseenhede in die Wes-Kaap. Die stelsel-aanvraagpatrone van laekoste behuisingseenhede is verskillend wanneer dit met voorstedelike stelsel-aanvraagpatrone vergelyk word en kan nie gedefinieer word deur tradisionele modelle nie. Soortgelyk volg die gebruik van reënwater-herwinningstelsels in hierdie areas ‘n onkonvensionele roetine. ‘n Stogastiese eindgebruikmodel vir water-aanvraag is ontwikkel, wat tydelike profiele genereer vir water wat van beide bronne verskaf word, naamlik die waterverspreidingstelsel en die reënwater-herwinningstelsel. Die model bepaal by benadering ‘n daaglikse stelsel- en tenkwater-aanvraagpatroon vir ‘n enkele plaaslike huishouding, deur @RISK sagteware. Die aanvraag-beramingstegnieke word verduidelik deur toepassing op ‘n spesifieke gevallestudie, waar herwinde reënwater gereeld gebruik word. Die parameter waardeberamings is gebaseer op verbruikers-opnames en vorige studies oor die gevallestudie-gebied, waar die grootte van die huishoudings bepaal was in die vorm van 'n waarskynlikheidsverspreiding. Die resultate bevestig die atipiese stesel aanvraagpatrone in laekoste behuisingseenhede eenhede. Alhoewel twee duidelike pieke in die oggend en die aand voorkom, is ‘n relatiewe konstante vloei dwarsdeur die dag teenwoordig. ‘n Sensitiwiteitsanalise van al die modelparameters bevestig dat die grootte van die huishouding die grootste beduidende invloed op tenkwater- aanvraagpatrone het. Die stelsel- en tenkwater-aanvraagpatrone was vergelyk met gepubliseerde gemiddelde daaglikse water-aanvraag riglyne wat bevestig dat meer waterbesparings bereik kan word waar die reënwaterbron binne die huishouding beskikbaar is met minimale moeite. Die stogastiese aanvraagprofiele, wat as deel van hierdie navorsing afgelei was, stem saam met die gemeterde stelsel-aanvraagpatroon van dieselfde area. Die resultate van hierdie studie kan in die toekomstige ontwikkeling van nasionale standaarde opgeneem word.

In dieser Arbeit wird ein Modell für die Simulation des Verbraucherverhaltens in Haushalten entwickelt. Das Ziel ist die Erstellung von Lastprofilen für den Strom- und Wasserverbrauch. Das Modell wird in einem Programm implementiert. Die Ergebnisse werden anschließend validiert und verschiedene Kenngrößen mit Literaturwerten verglichen. Abschließend wird eine Parameterstudie durchgeführt, um den Einfluss verschiedener Faktoren wie z.B. das Arbeitszeitmodell oder die Feiertagsmodellierung auf Lastprofile zu quantifizieren. Das Modell basiert auf einem Bedürfnismodell aus der Psychologie und ermöglicht den Verzicht auf die Errechnung von Aktivitäts-Wahrscheinlichkeitsverteilungen. / In this thesis a model for the simulation of the behaviour of people in residential households is introduced. The goal is to generate load profiles for residential electricity and water consumption. The model is implemented as a Windows program. The results are validated and various metrics are compared with literature values. A parameter study is performed to quantify the influence of various factors such as the working hours or the influence of holidays on the load profile. The model is based on a desire model from the field of psychology and makes it possible to avoid calculating any probabilty distributions.