Cette thèse répond au défi lancé par Benoît XVI (2009), qui avait appelé toutes les personnes de bonne volonté à réfléchir sur le rôle de la gratuité dans l’économie et la société. Nous avons tâché de relever ce défi sur le plan scientifique, avec les outils et les démarches de l’analyse économique. Sur la base d’une revue systématique de la littérature économique portant sur la gratuité, nous avons essayé de rassembler des éléments pour donner un contenu à une « théorie des biens économiques gratuits ». Cette démarche nous a permis de définir ces biens gratuits, leurs formes et manifestations, et de comprendre leurs principales causes et conséquences. Une attention particulière a été accordée à l’étude de la « gratuité non intentionnelle », omniprésente dans la vie économique. Cette forme de gratuité émane, d’un côté, spontanément du processus de production et, d’un autre côté, des activités des entrepreneurs et des génies créatifs. Une implication forte de ce résultat est que la recherche de profit, stimulus de l’entrepreneur, n’est pas en soi opposée à la production de biens économiques gratuits ; bien au contraire, elle en est une cause. Peu d’économistes apprécient la gratuité non intentionnelle à sa juste valeur. En exagérant la portée réelle de conceptions théoriques telle la maximisation du profit et la concurrence atomistique, la plupart des économistes en appellent à l’État pour limiter les activités marchandes et pour assurer la production de biens économiques gratuits. Il est donc vrai, mais dans un sens assez paradoxal, que l’économie de marché pourrait s’ouvrir davantage à la gratuité si les économistes eux-mêmes travaillaient moins à la réduire dans ce champ. / Benedict XVI (2009) has called upon all persons of goodwill to reflect upon the role of gratuitousness in economy and society. The present thesis responds to that challenge on the level of scientific inquiry, with the tools and the methods of economic analysis. Starting from a systematic review of the economic literature dealing with gratuitousness, we have tried to assemble conceptual elements to build a “theory of gratuitous economic goods”. Thus we have defined the nature of such gratuitous goods, their forms and manifestations, and analysed their principal causes and consequences. We have bestowed particular attention to the study of “unintentional gratuitousness” – an omnipresent phenomenon in economic life. This form of gratuitousness emanates, on the one hand, spontaneously from the market process and, on the other hand, from the activities of entrepreneurs and creative geniuses. A strong implication of this finding is that the profit motive, the stimulus of entrepreneurial action, is not per se in opposition to the production of gratuitous economic goods; quite to the contrary, it is one of their causes. Few economists have understood the nature and role of unintentional gratuitousness. Most of them, by exaggerating the scope of theoretical concepts such as the maximization of profits and atomistic competition, call for the government to limit the scope of for-profit activities and to promote the production of gratuitous economic goods. Thus it is true, though in a quite paradoxical sense, that the market economy could allow for much more gratuitousness if only the economists themselves did less to prevent this from happening.

The Master's Thesis deals with the issue of solitude of seniors. It examines the solitude from theological, psychological and sociological point of view and seeks inspiration in the Social Doctrine of the Catholic Church. It tries to understand the position of Benedict XVI. who says that the most painful kind of poverty is solitude. The acquired knowledge is then viewed through the optic of social work and possible solutions of the problem of solitude of seniors are suggested.

The author analyzes a very important issue such as illegitimate tax avoidance. He begins by explaining the content of the concept of illegitimate tax avoidance, and also he points out the differences with other concepts like tax evasion and tax planning. Then, he comments the debate on the use of legal figures which doesn’t belong to Tax Law, in order to solve issue of illegitimate tax avoidance. Finally, he explains the scope and the application of the Peruvian general anti-avoidance rule stipulated in the Peruvian Tax Code. / El autor analiza un tema de suma importancia como es el de la elusión fiscal. Se comienza esclareciendo el contenido del concepto de elusión, diferenciándolo de otros conceptos como la evasión fiscal y la economía de opción. Luego, pasa a recoger y comentar el debate en torno al uso de figuras ajenas al Derecho Tributario para dar solución al problema de la elusión fiscal. Finalmente, pasa a explicar el alcance y aplicación de la cláusula general antielusiva peruana estipulada en la norma XVI del Título Preliminar del Código tributario.

L'intérêt scientifique pour l'image de Louis XV et Louis XVI a été jusqu'ici bien moindre que celui manifesté pour celle de leur glorieux ancêtre, Louis XIV. Cette situation a pu être encouragée par une historiographie inclinant à l'hypothèse de la désacralisation de la monarchie au XVIIIe siècle. Il en aurait résulté une dégradation de l'image royale, la monarchie étant incapable de faire face au rôle de plus en plus déterminant joué par la sphère publique. Or, ce travail cherche à montrer que c'est précisément en raison de la prise en compte de l'opinion que cette image royale se redéfinit à cette période, une redéfinition qui apparaissait d'autant plus nécessaire après la défaite dans la Guerre de Sept Ans. C'est bientôt la représentation d'un roi simple et bienfaisant, inspirée par Stanislas Leszczynski, qui s'impose et qui contribue à la popularité de Louis XVI pendant son règne. Ainsi, la représentation royale évolue en se donnant de nouveaux modèles. Elle tire en outre parti d'une multiplicité de supports de diffusion dont la démocratisation permet de toucher un large public. Enfin, cette image ne se conçoit plus sans un nouvel acteur : la presse qui sert à la fois à promouvoir l'iconographie royale, à préciser son sens et à lui donner consistance. / Up to now, scholarly studies have shown less interest in the image of Louis XV and Louis XVI than in the one of their glorious ancestor, Louis XIV. This situation may have been encouraged by a historiography fostering the hypothesis of the desacralization of the monarchy in the 18th century. It would have led to a degradation of the royal image, with the monarchy being unable to face up to the growing influence of the public sphere. Yet, this dissertation tries to show that it precisely was because public opinion was taken into account that the royal image was redifined at the period. It appeared all the more necessary after the defeat in the Seven Years War. Soon afterwards, the representation of a simple and benevolent king, inspired by Stanislas Leszczynski, began to prevail and contributed much to the popularity of Louis XVI during his reign. Thus, the royal representation evolved and refered to new models. It also made good use of the democratization of multiple diffusion mediums enabling it to reach a larger public. Finally, the royal image could not be contemplated without paying attention to a major new actor: the press. It was used to promote the new royal iconography but it also precised its meaning and gave it some intellectual substance.

The Pope's visits are important social, political, and media events. The pope always comes to the host country with a predetermined agenda, not unlike the one for state visits by politicians. The Pope's speeches are at the center of the public part of the agenda. This thesis aims to analyze the messages that the two popes presented to the nation and the world during their visits to Czechoslovakia and the Czech Republic. And also how the media captured, interpreted, and brought these messages to their audiences. The results show that the popes emphasized several topics, from spiritual renewal, return to tradition, reorganization of the Church to the commemoration of Christianity as the basis of European culture. However, the media largely ignored these frames, because even the use of frames does not guarantee preferred decoding. The analysis of selected newspapers showed that the papal messages were spread the best in Lidové noviny, a paper focused on strong opinion texts. This is all the more surprising because Lidové noviny was built on the traditional anti-Catholic tradition. The narrowly focused Catholic weekly did not spread the message to such an extent. In the case of the mainstream Mladá fronta Dnes, the form of the visit prevailed over the content, and the main role was played by the...

Working in its first part introduces the basic points of Marian spirituality. It shows her sources in the Old and New Testaments. The following are presented and analyzed its theological basis and are also compared various doctrinal truth doctrine of the Virgin Mary looking chosen saints of important theological figures with attitudes Joseph Ratzinger - Pope Benedict XVI. In the second half of the work is shown in the way he lived and understood Marian spirituality during his pontificate. The final section is intended to Benedict's thoughts, which are developed by individual elements of Marian devotion.

[pt] A História da Igreja é marcada por homens e mulheres que assumiram de forma livre os conselhos evangélicos de castidade, pobreza e obediência, denominados, atualmente como vida consagrada. O Concílio Vaticano II, reconhecendo a necessidade de renovação para comunicar-se melhor com o mundo moderno, estabelece diretivas para todos os estados de vida reconhecidos pela Igreja. Para as pessoas consagradas, tais diretivas estão delineadas principalmente no capítulo VI da Constituição Dogmática Lumen Gentium, no decreto Perfectae Caritatis, dedicado aos religiosos, 33 a 35 do decreto Christus Dominus e 18 e 40 do decreto Ad gentes. Os Padres Conciliares procuraram destacar em tais documentos a essência da vida religiosa, mas, devido à má interpretação e recepção das orientações, algumas comunidades religiosas se viram desorientadas quanto a particular identidade e funcionalidade da vida consagrada para a Igreja. Os documentos pós-conciliares de Paulo VI a João Paulo II buscaram combater a hermenêutica da ruptura, focando no aspecto histórico, existencial e prático, principalmente através da Exortação Apostólica Pós-Sinodal Vita Consecrata. Bento XVI, ao adotar a hermenêutica da continuidade, seguindo a linha dos Padres Conciliares e de seus predecessores, trata do tema da vida consagrada em diversas homilias, mensagens e discursos. Através da análise de alguns de seus pronunciamentos, a pesquisa pretende sinalizar os pontos de continuidade e temas relevantes para os consagrados, destacando, desta forma, a sua contribuição para o entendimento e aprofundamento da identidade da vida especialmente consagrada. / [en] The History of the Church is marked by men and women who freely assumed the evangelical counsels of chastity, poverty and obedience, currently called consecrated life. The Vatican Council II, recognizing the need for renewal in order to better communicate with the modern world, establishes directives for all states of life recognized by the Church. For consecrated persons, such directives are outlined mainly in chapter VI of the Dogmatic Constitution Lumen Gentium, in the decree Perfectae Caritatis, dedicated to religious, 33 to 35 of the decree Christus Dominus and 18 and 40 of the decree Ad gentes. The council fathers sought to highlight in these documents the essence of religious life, but, due to the misinterpretation and reception of the guidelines, some religious communities found themselves disoriented as to the particular identity and functionality of the consecrated life for the Church . The post-conciliar documents from Paul VI to John Paul II sought to combat the hermeneutics of rupture, focusing on the historical, existential and practical aspects, mainly through the Post-Synodal Apostolic Exhortation Vita Consecrata. Benedict XVI, adopting the hermeneutic of continuity, the line of the council fathers and their predecessors, treats with the theme of consecrated life in several homilies, messages and speeches. Through analysis of some his pronouncements, the research intends to signal the points of continuity and relevant themes for the consecrated, detaching their contribution to understanding and deepening of the identity of the especially consecrated life.

[pt] O Tema da Democracia é discutido e pensando nas mais diversas rodas e mesas do saber. Desde a discussão sobre sua formação a sua maneira de existir enquanto forma de governo, muitos são os pensadores e estudos. A Igreja também, desde seu nascimento, é alvo de discussões sobre seu modo de funcionamento e seu governo, fazendo com que, ao longo dos séculos, seja pensada das mais variadas óticas e autores. Joseph Ratzinger, por exemplo, autor, Padre, exímio teólogo e Papa, então surge como figura central no presente texto. Sua maneira de entender a democracia, seu pensamento a respeito da autoridade eclesial, direitos humanos e garantias fundamentais da vida em sociedade são temas abordados na tentativa de elucidar questões que envolvem a relação Igreja e sociedade, governo terreno e governo divino e até mesmo seus preceitos históricos através do seu pensamento teológico. A tentativa de analisar a reflexão teológica sobre a democracia a luz do pensamento de Bento XVI é o objeto central desta apresentação. / [en] The Theme of democracy is discussed and thinking in the most diverse circles and tables of knowledge. From the discussion about its formation to its way of existing as a form of government, there are many thinkers and studies. Since its birth, the Church has also been the subject of discussions about its mode of functioning and its government, making it, over the centuries, thought of from the most varied perspectives and authors. Joseph Ratzinger, for example, author, priest, eminent theologian and Pope, thus emerges as a central figure in this text. His way of understanding democracy, his thinking about ecclesial authority, human rights and fundamental guarantees of life in society are topics addressed in an attempt to elucidate issues involving the relationship between Church and society, earthly government and divine government and even its precepts through his theological thought. The attempt to analyze theological reflection on democracy in the light of Benedict XVI s thought is the central object of this presentation.

[pt] O tema da presente pesquisa é a proclamação de Jesus sobre o Reino de Deus na teologia de Joseph Ratzinger e no Magistério de Bento XVI. Está inserida nas atividades de pesquisa do Programa de Pós Graduação em Teologia da PUCRio, área de concentração Teologia Sistemático-Pastoral, linha de pesquisa Fé e Cultura, projeto de pesquisa A Teologia de Joseph Ratzinger e o Magistério de Bento XVI. O que se pretende – como objetivo principal – é investigar como essa noção é interpretada nos textos desse autor, qual o significado que tal realidade assume em seu pensamento teológico e em seu Magistério e identificar sua importância para a compreensão da figura e da mensagem de Jesus. Com esse último elemento, na realidade, se toca em um aspecto da grande e importante questão que é a relação entre a proclamação do Reino de Deus por Jesus de Nazaré e as origens da cristologia. Com isto, se visa obter um melhor esclarecimento sobre como Joseph Ratzinger-Bento XVI interpreta o Reino de Deus e de que forma ele fundamenta e aplica essa sua interpretação. Faz ainda parte do escopo da pesquisa a identificação de elementos que distinguem sua interpretação da de outros autores e, ainda, se sua interpretação sofre alguma alteração na evolução de sua obra. Como é sabido, no contexto da discussão sobre o Jesus histórico, essa problemática constitui um aspecto essencial, inúmeros autores se debruçaram sobre ela e muitas foram as interpretações que dela se ofereceram, pelo menos, desde o século XVIII, com o advento da pesquisa histórico-crítica. / [en] This research has as its theme the proclamation of Jesus about the Kingdom of God in the theology of Joseph Ratzinger and in the Magisterium of Benedict XVI. It is part of the research activities of the Postgraduate Program in Theology of PUC-Rio, Area of Concentration Systematic-Pastoral Theology, research line Faith and Culture, research project Joseph Ratzinger s Theology and the Magisterium of Benedict XVI. Intending - as its main objective - to investigate, through the interpretation of the texts of this author, the meaning that the approached reality assumes in his theological thinking and in his teaching and to identify its importance in understanding the figure and message of Jesus. In this last element, we seek to emphasize the aspect of the great and important question that deals with the relationship between the proclamation of the Kingdom of God by Jesus of Nazareth and the origins of Christology. In order to gain a better understanding of how Joseph Ratzinger-Benedict XVI interprets the kingdom of God and how its interpretation is grounded and applied. It is also part of the scope of the research to identify elements that distinguish their interpretation compared to other authors and also if their interpretation suffers any change in the evolution of their work. As is well known, in the context of the discussion of the historical Jesus, this issue is an essential aspect, many authors have addressed it, and many interpretations have been offered to it at least since the 18th century, with the advent of historical and critical research.

[pt] A hermenêutica bíblico-teológica situada na metodologia teológica de Joseph Ratzinger, nomeada por ele hermenêutica da fé, é o tema principal dessa dissertação. Busca-se através desse aspecto do pensamento de Ratzinger encontrar perspectivas que proporcionem, no fazer teológico, uma relação saudável e frutífera entre Sagrada Escritura e teologia sistemática, tendo em vista o contexto da teologia contemporânea e os desafios hodiernos. Para analisar esse aspecto do pensamento de Ratzinger, foi necessário estudar e apresentar o que é o método histórico-crítico, pois a formulação da sua hermenêutica bíblico-teológica se deu no diálogo com ele. Posteriormente se analisou a importância da Constituição Dogmática Dei Verbum na sistematização da hermenêutica bíblico-teológica de Ratzinger. Buscando verificar esse aspecto de sua metodologia em uma área específica de sua teologia, optou-se pela cristologia, em especial no primeiro volume de sua obra Jesus de Nazaré. Nesse capítulo busca-se evidenciar a maneira como Ratzinger interpreta as Sagradas Escrituras no fazer teológico, com o objetivo de verificar se ele pratica sua hermenêutica bíblico-teológica. Também é dedicado um capítulo à apresentação das diversas análises feitas por alguns autores à proposta metodológica de Ratzinger para a composição do Jesus de Nazaré. Nessas análises, buscou-se focar a metodologia usada por Ratzinger. Foram apresentadas as recepções positivas, e também, algumas críticas. / [en] The main theme of this Master s Thesis is about biblical-theological hermeneutics based on Joseph Ratzinger s theological methodology, which he calls the hermeneutics of faith. Through this aspect of Ratzinger s thought, we seek to find perspectives in the theological making that provide a healthy and fruitful relationship between Sacred Scripture and Systematic Theology, which considers the context of contemporary theology and current challenges. Therefore, in order to analyze this aspect of Ratzinger s thought, it was necessary to study and present the meaning of historical-critical method, because the formulation of his biblicaltheological hermeneutics took place in the dialogue about this method. After this, the importance of Dogmatic Constitution Dei Verbum in the systematization of Ratzinger s biblical-theological hermeneutics was analyzed. In order to verify this aspect of his methodology in a specific area of his theology, Christology was chosen especially in the first volume of his book Jesus of Nazareth. In the first chapter, we try to highlight the way Ratzinger interprets the Holy Scriptures in his theological work. It has the aim of verifying if he practices his biblical-theological hermeneutics. There is also a chapter dedicated to present many analyzes made by some authors about the methodological proposal of Ratzinger to compose his book Jesus of Nazareth. In these analyzes, we sought to focus on the methodology used by Ratzinger. Positive receptions were presented, as well as some critical ones.