Additiv tillverkning (AT) eller 3D-utskrivning är en teknologi som har berömts den senaste tiden och förutsägs kommer att förändra hela tillverkningsindustrin. Dessa termer hänvisar båda till ett antal tillverkningstekniker där ett objekt framställs skikt för skikt genom att successivt tillföra material i tunna lager.Baserat på en litteraturstudie och intervjuer med experter inom området undersöker denna studie möjligheten att använda AT inom företaget CJ Automotive (CJA) vilket är en underleverantör inom fordonsindustrin som tillverkar olika slags pedalsystem. Rapporten beskriver additiv tillverkning, dess fördelar och olika användningsområden. Olika AT-tekniker, AT-material och välkända 3D-skrivartillverkare presenteras. Signifikanta fakta rörande både kvalitet, kostnad och teknik redogörs för. Även en jämförelse mellan olika tekniker redovisas.Denna rapport innehåller riktlinjer för hur ett företag ska tänka och vilka faktorer som är viktiga vid val av rätt 3D-skrivarteknik. Studien pekar på att det finns många fördelar med att utnyttja 3D-skrivare under utvecklingsprocessen på företaget. Detta kommer att påskynda utvecklingsprocessen och eventuellt förbättra produkterna till följd av mer flexibilitet och designmöjligheter. Slutligen föreslås två AT-tekniker som tycks vara de lämpligaste med tanke på företagets verksamhet. / Program: Högskoleingenjörsexamen i Maskiningenjörprogrammet - Produktutveckling

3D printing a CAD modelnormally requires conversion into a polygon mesh, usually an STL-file, in orderto be able to load the model in the slicer. This conversion destroys roundsurfaces and replaces them with flat surfaces. Slicing a polygon mesh resultsin one or more polygons, consisting of a number of straight lines. This canaffect both dimensional accuracy and surface smoothness. Modern 3D-printerscan, in addition to straight lines, handle arcs. However, today’s commonslicers can not generate arcs as the input does not contain any curvedfeatures. This project aims at finding an alternative solution. By directslicing of CAD models the slices can contain arcs, and the slicer can producearc commands for the 3D-printer. During this project a prototype slicer isconstructed as a proof of concept. The prototype handles STEP-files as inputand creates both linear and circular movement for the 3D-printer. The resultsshow that both the intermediate files (STEP/STL) and the resulting G-code filescan get smaller, yet preserving the original shape, by using this method. Theproposed solution has a positive effect on the 3D-printing workflow as well, asthe intermediate files can be imported back into the CAD system. The projectconcludes that there is possibly a bright future for direct slicing, but thereare more problems to solve before it can become reality.

<div>Fused deposition modeling (FDM) represents one of the most common techniques for rapid proto-typing in additive manufacturing (AM). This work applies image based thermography to monitor the FDM process in-situ. The nozzle temperature, print speed and print orientation were adjusted during the fabrication process of each specimen.</div><div>Experimental and numerical analysis were performed on the fabricated specimens. The combination of the layer wise temperature profile plot and temporal plot provide insights</div><div>for specimens fabricated in x, y and z-axis orientation. For the x-axis orientation build possessing 35 layers, Specimens B16 and B7 printed with nozzle temperature of 225 ➦C and</div><div>235 ➦C respectively, and at printing speed of 60 mm/s and 100 mm/s respectively with the former possessing the highest modulus, yield strength, and ultimate tensile strength. For the y-axis orientation build possessing 59 layers, Specimens B23, B14 and B8 printed with nozzle temperature of 215°C, 225°C and 235°C respectively, and at printing speed of 80 mm/s, 80 mm/s and 60 mm/s respectively with the former possessing the highest modulus and yield strength, while the latter the highest ultimate tensile strength. For the z-axis orientation build possessing 1256 layers, Specimens B6, B24 and B9 printed with nozzle temperature of 235°C, 235°C and 235°C respectively, and at printing speed of 80 mm/s, 80 mm/s and 60 mm/s respectively with the former possessing the highest modulus and ultimate tensile strength, while B24 had the highest yield strength and B9 the lowest modulus, yield strength and ultimate tensile strength. The results show that the prints oriented in the y-axis orientation perform relatively better than prints in the x-axis and z-axis orientation.</div>

In recent years, additive manufacturing (AM) has become an increasingly promising method used for the production of structural metallic components. There are a number of reasons why AM methods are attractive, including the ability to produce complex geometries into a near-net shape and the rapid transition from design to production. Ti-6Al-4V is a titanium alloy frequently used in the aerospace industry which is receiving considerable attention as a good candidate for processing via electron beam additive manufacturing (EBAM). The Sciaky EBAM method combines a high-powered electron beam, weld-wire feedstock, and a large build chamber, enabling the production of large structural components. In order to gain wide acceptance of EBAM of Ti-6Al-4V as a viable manufacturing method, it is important to understand broadly the microstructural features that are present in large-scale depositions, including specifically: the morphology, distribution and texture of the phases present. To achieve such an understanding, stereological methods were used to populate a database quantifying key microstructural features in Ti-6Al-4V including volume fraction of phases, a lath width, colony scale factor, and volume fraction of basket weave type microstructure. Microstructural features unique to AM, such as elongated grains and banded structures, were also characterized. Hardness and tensile testing were conducted and the results were related to the microstructural morphology and sample orientation. Lastly, fractured surfaces and defects were investigated. The results of these activities provide insight into the process-structure-properties relationships found in EBAM processed Ti-6Al-4V.

Nos últimos anos, a aplicação de tecnologias de manufatura aditiva tem crescido, estendendo seus benefícios para áreas diversas, como saúde, e encurtando o tempo de desenvolvimento de produto. Contudo, são encontrados apenas fabricantes nacionais de versões \"open-source\" de baixo custo de tecnologias de modelagem por fusão deposição (FDM), não existindo desenvolvedor de uma tecnologia nacional. Em função disto, o objetivo principal deste trabalho é apresentar e validar uma nova concepção de processo de fabricação aditiva. Esta proposta consiste na geração seletiva de compósito de celulose e acrílico através de fonte coerente de luz UV. Para isto, foram realizados estudos referentes a duas áreas principais, desenvolvimento de material e validação da concepção de processo proposto. Para o desenvolvimento de material, foram estudados materiais fotopoliméricos a base de acrilatos de forma a ser obtida uma formulação de material adequada para ser validado o processo. Da mesma forma, a seleção do material celulósico empregado foi realizado a partir da caracterização de materiais celulósicos laminados (papéis) comumente encontrados no mercado. Adicionalmente, foi identificado potencial de viabilidade preliminar da proposta ao longo da caracterização do compósito, visto que foi avaliada a aderência entre camadas, resistência mecânica à tração, resistência à água e microestrutura do compósito. Após o desenvolvimento do material, foi desenvolvido o projeto preliminar do equipamento de validação da proposta, assim como a fabricação de um protótipo e sua calibração. Foram realizados estudos de otimização para implementação do projeto do sistema de posicionamento, assim como dimensionamento de \"error Budget\" e custo relativo de equipamento. Foi também desenvolvido sistema de deposição de material polimérico, sistema de polimerização e alimentação de material, sendo realizados estudos de caracterização e validação do processo proposto. Foram identificados os efeitos principais dos principais parâmetros de processo para a largura da linha de polimerização, interferência da formação de compósito para camadas anteriores e, por fim a construção de corpo de prova. Através destes estudos, foi possível identificar a viabilidade funcional da proposta, sendo observadas as vantagens e desvantagens desta nova concepção em relação aos principais processos de fabricação aditiva no mercado. / In recent years, the application of additive manufacturing technologies has grown, extending its benefits to diverse areas such as health, and shortening the time product development. However, national manufacturers are only found to provide versions of open-source and low cost FDM technologies, highlighting the absence of a national technology developer. Due to that, the main goal of this work is to present and evaluate a novel concept of additive manufacturing process. This proposal consists in selectively generate composite of cellulose and acrylic through a coherent UV light source. For this, studies have been conducted concerning two main areas, material development and validation of proposed process. For the development of material, we have studied photopolymeric materials based on acrylates so as to obtain a composition of material suitable for validating the process. Likewise, the selection of cellulosic substrate was made from the characterization of laminated cellulosic materials (sheet of paper) which are commonly found at market. Additionally, we identified the potential feasibility of the proposal along the preliminary characterization the composite, whereas it was evaluated the adhesion between layers, tensile strength, water resistance and microstructure of the composite. After development the material, it was developed a preliminary design of equipment for validation of proposal, in addition to fabricating and calibrating a prototype. Studies were performed to optimize and implement the mechanical design of the positioning system as well as sizing error Budget and relative cost of equipment. It was also developed the systems of poylmerization, photopolymeric material deposition, and feed of substrate, being conducted studies for the characterization and validation of proposed process. We identified the main effects of the main process parameters on the polymerization line width, interference of the formation of composite layers for and previous layers, and the construction of the test ix body. Through these studies, it was possible to identify the functional feasibility of the proposal, being observed the advantages and disadvantages of this novel design in comparison with the main additive manufacturing process in the market.

Additive Manufacturing (AM) has demonstrated great potential to advance product design and manufacturing, and has showed higher flexibility than conventional manufacturing techniques for the production of small volume, complex and customised components. In an economy focused on the need to develop customised and hi-tech products, there is increasing interest in establishing AM technologies as a more efficient production approach for high value products such as aerospace and biomedical products. Nevertheless, the use of AM processes, for even small to medium volume production faces a number of issues in the current state of the technology. AM production is normally used for making parts with complex geometry which implicates the assessment of numerous processing options or choices; the wrong choice of process parameters can result in poor surface quality, onerous manufacturing time and energy waste, and thus increased production costs and resources. A few commonly used AM processes require the presence of cellular support structures for the production of overhanging parts. Depending on the object complexity their removal can be impossible or very time (and resources) consuming. Currently, there is a lack of tools to advise the AM operator on the optimal choice of process parameters. This prevents the diffusion of AM as an efficient production process for enterprises, and as affordable access to democratic product development for individual users. Research in literature has focused mainly on the optimisation of single criteria for AM production. An integrated predictive modelling and optimisation technique has not yet been well established for identifying an efficient process set up for complicated products which often involve critical building requirements. For instance, there are no robust methods for the optimal design of complex cellular support structures, and most of the software commercially available today does not provide adequate guidance on how to optimally orientate the part into the machine bed, or which particular combination of cellular structures need to be used as support. The choice of wrong support and orientation can degenerate into structure collapse during an AM process such as Selective Laser Melting (SLM), due to the high thermal stress in the junctions between fillets of different cells. Another issue of AM production is the limited parts’ surface quality typically generated by the discrete deposition and fusion of material. This research has focused on the formation of surface morphology of AM parts. Analysis of SLM parts showed that roughness measured was different from that predicted through a classic model based on pure geometrical consideration on the stair step profile. Experiments also revealed the presence of partially bonded particles on the surface; an explanation of this phenomenon has been proposed. Results have been integrated into a novel mathematical model for the prediction of surface roughness of SLM parts. The model formulated correctly describes the observed trend of the experimental data, and thus provides an accurate prediction of surface roughness. This thesis aims to deliver an effective computational methodology for the multi- objective optimisation of the main building conditions that affect process efficiency of AM production. For this purpose, mathematical models have been formulated for the determination of parts’ surface quality, manufacturing time and energy consumption, and for the design of optimal cellular support structures. All the predictive models have been used to evaluate multiple performance and costs objectives; all the objectives are typically contrasting; and all greatly affected by the part’s build orientation. A multi-objective optimisation technique has been developed to visualise and identify optimal trade-offs between all the contrastive objectives for the most efficient AM production. Hence, this thesis has delivered a decision support system to assist the operator in the "process planning" stage, in order to achieve optimal efficiency and sustainability in AM production through maximum material, time and energy savings.

Le développement récent des technologies de fabrication additive par couches (Additive Layer Manufacturing) a généré de nouvelles opportunités en termes de conception. Généralement, une étape d'optimisation topologique est réalisée pour les structures ALM. Cette tâche est aujourd'hui facilitée par des progiciels commerciaux, comme Altair OptiStruct ou Simulia TOSCA. Néanmoins, la liberté accordée par l’ALM est seulement apparente et des problèmes majeurs empêchent une exploitation complète et généralisée de cette technologie.La première lacune importante provient de l'intégration directe du résultat d'un calcul d’optimisation topologique dans un environnement CAO approprié. Quoi qu'il en soit, la géométrie optimisée résultante n'est disponible que sous une forme discrétisée, c'est-à-dire en termes d'éléments finis (FE) obtenus à la fin de l'optimisation. La frontière de la géométrie optimisée n'est pas décrite par une entité géométrique, par conséquent la topologie résultante n'est pas compatible avec les logiciels de CAO qui constituent l'environnement naturel du concepteur. Une phase de reconstruction CAO longue est nécessaire et le concepteur est obligé de prendre une quantité considérable de décisions arbitraires. Souvent la topologie CAO compatible résultante ne répond plus aux contraintes d'optimisation.La deuxième restriction majeure est liée aux exigences technologiques spécifiques à l’ALM qui doivent être intégrées directement dans la formulation du problème d'optimisation: considérer la spécificité de l’ALM uniquement comme un post-traitement de la tâche d’optimisation topologique impliquerait des modifications si importantes de la pièce que la topologie optimisée pourrait être complètement différente de la solution optimisée.Cette thèse propose une méthodologie générale pour résoudre les inconvénients mentionnés ci-dessus. Un algorithme d’optimisation topologique innovant a été développé: il vise à fournir une description de la topologie basée sur des entités NURBS et B-Spline purement géométriques, qui sont nativement CAO compatibles. Dans ce cadre, les analyses éléments finis sont utilisées uniquement pour évaluer les réponses physiques du problème étudié. En particulier, une entité géométrique NURBS / B-Spline de dimension D + 1 est utilisée pour résoudre le problème d’optimisation topologique de dimension D.L'efficacité de cette approche a été testée sur certains benchmarks 2D et 3D, issus de la littérature. L'utilisation d'entités NURBS dans la formulation de l’optimisation topologique accélère considérablement la phase de reconstruction CAO pour les structures 2D et présente un grand potentiel pour les problèmes 3D. En outre, il est prouvé que les contraintes géométriques, comme par exemple les épaisseurs minimale et maximale de matière, peuvent être efficacement et systématiquement traitées au moyen de l'approche proposée. De plus, des contraintes géométriques spéciales (non disponibles dans les outils commerciaux), par exemple le rayon de courbure local de la frontière de la phase solide, peuvent être formulées également grâce à la formulation NURBS. La robustesse de la méthodologie proposée a été testée en prenant en compte d'autres grandeurs mécaniques, telles que les charges de flambement et les fréquences naturelles liées aux modes de vibration.Enfin, malgré la nature intrinsèque de l'algorithme d’optimisation topologique basé sur les NURBS, certains outils ont été développés pour déterminer automatiquement le contour des pièces 2D sous forme de courbe et sous forme de surface dans le cadre 3D. L’identification automatique des paramètres des courbes 2D a été entièrement développée et un algorithme original a été proposé. Les principes fondamentaux de la méthode sont également discutés pour l'identification des paramètres des surfaces limites pour les pièces 3D. / The recent development of Additive Layer Manufacturing (ALM) technologies has made possible new opportunities in terms of design. Complicated shapes and topologies, resulting from dedicated optimisation processes or by the designer decisions, are nowadays attainable. Generally, a Topology Optimisation (TO) step is considered when dealing with ALM structures and today this task is facilitated by commercial software packages, like Altair OptiStruct or Simulia TOSCA. Nevertheless, the freedom granted by ALM is only apparent and there are still major issues hindering a full and widespread exploitation of this technology.The first important shortcoming comes from the integration of the result of a TO calculation into a suitable CAD environment. The optimised geometry is available only in a discretised form, i.e. in terms of Finite Elements (FE), which are retained into the computational domain at the end of the TO analysis. Therefore, the boundary of the optimised geometry is not described by a geometrical entity, hence the resulting topology is not compatible with CAD software that constitutes the natural environment for the designer. A time consuming CAD-reconstruction phase is needed and the designer is obliged to make a considerable amount of arbitrary decisions. Consequently, often the resulting CAD-compatible topology does not meet the optimisation constraints.The second major restriction is related to ALM specific technological requirements that should be integrated directly within the optimisation problem formulation and not later: considering ALM specificity only as post-treatment of the TO task would imply so deep modifications of the component that the optimised configuration would be completely overturned.This PhD thesis proposes a general methodology to overcome the aforementioned drawbacks. An innovative TO algorithm has been developed: it aims at providing a topology description based on purely geometric, intrinsically CAD-compliant entities. In this framework, NURBS and B-Spline geometric entities have been naturally considered and FE analyses are used only to evaluate the physical responses for the problem at hand. In particular, a NURBS/B-Spline geometric entity of dimension D+1 is used to solve the TO problem of dimension D. The D+1 coordinate of the NURBS/B-Spline entity is related to a pseudo-density field that is affected to the generic element stiffness matrix; according to the classical penalisation scheme employed in density-based TO methods.The effectiveness of this approach has been tested on some 2D and 3D benchmarks, taken from literature. The use of NURBS entities in the TO formulation significantly speeds up the CAD reconstruction phase for 2D structures and exhibits a great potential for 3D TO problems. Further, it is proven that geometrical constraints, like minimum and maximum length scales, can be effectively and consistently handled by means of the proposed approach. Moreover, special geometric constraints (not available in commercial tools), e.g. on the local curvature radius of the boundary, can be formulated thanks to the NURBS formulation as well. The robustness of the proposed methodology has been tested by taking into account other mechanical quantities of outstanding interest in engineering, such as buckling loads and natural frequencies.Finally, in spite of the intrinsic CAD-compliant nature of the NURBS-based TO algorithm, some support tools have been developed in order to perform the curve and surface fitting in a very general framework. The automatic curve fitting has been completely developed and an original algorithm is developed for choosing the best values of the NURBS curve parameters, both discrete and continuous. The fundamentals of the method are also discussed for the more complicated surface fitting problem and ideas/suggestions for further researches are provided.

Cette recherche vise à proposer une approche intégrée permettant la prise en compte simultanée des paramètres Produits / process dans le cadre d’une fabrication par ajout de matière. Le développement produit est en profonde mutation, prenant en compte les contraintes de personnalisation, de temps de mise sur le marché de plus en plus court, la volonté d’une approche eco-responsable etc. Ce changement de paradigme conduit à s’intéresser au choix du couple matériau /process dès la phase de conception afin de prendre en compte les contraintes liées au procédé identifié. Cette approche multi critère s’intéresse à la fois au couple matériau procédé mais prend en compte les aspect fonctionnels de la pièce. Ainsi ce travail de thèse présente une méthodologie de décision générique, basée sur des outils de prise de décision multicritères, qui peut non seulement proposer une solution satisfaisant les contraintes liées aux matériaux, processus et processus par addition de matière, mais propose également de servir de guide aux concepteurs permettant un choix raisonné basé sur des combinaisons matériau-machine orientées conception et obtenu à partir d’une base de données de 38 fournisseurs internationaux de machine de fabrication par ajout de matière. / The doctoral research focuses to build an integrated approach that can simultaneously handle the product and process parameters related to additive manufacturing (AM). Since, market dynamics of today are constantly evolving, drivers such as mass customization strategies, shorter product development cycles, a large pool of materials to choose from, abundant manufacturing processes, etc., have made it essential to choose the right compromise of materials, manufacturing processes and associated machines in early stages of design considering the Design for AM guidelines. As several criteria, material attributes and process functionality requirements are involved for decision making in the industries, the thesis introduces a generic decision methodology, based on multi-criteria decision-making tools, that can not only provide a set of compromised AM materials, processes and machines but will also act as a guideline for designers to achieve a strong foothold in the AM industry by providing practical solutions containing design oriented and feasible material-machine combinations from a database of 38 renowned AM vendors in the world today.

Automatic altitude compensation has been a holy grail of rocket propulsion for decades. Current state-of-the-art bell nozzles see large performance decreases at low altitudes, limiting rocket designs, shrinking payloads, and overall increasing costs. Aerospike nozzles are an old idea from the 1960’s that provide superior altitude-compensating performance and enhanced performance in vacuum, but have survivability issues that have stopped their application in satellite propulsion systems. A growing need for CubeSat propulsion systems provides the impetus to study aerospike nozzles in this application. This study built two aerospike nozzles using modern 3D metal printing techniques to test aerospikes at a size small enough to be potentially used on a CubeSat. Results indicated promising in-space performance, but further testing to determine thermal limits is deemed necessary.

This thesis set out to find a blend of thermoplastics that had better combustion properties than the current ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene) plastic or “Lego TM plastic” used by Utah State University. The current work is in an effort to eliminate toxic propellants from small space applications. High and low density polyethylene plastics were used because they are common plastic waste items. In this way rocket fuel can be made from these items to reduce the waste found in landfills. Three plastics were considered for replacement and as mixture components with the ABS plastic, namely low and high density polyethylene, and high impact polystyrene. These plastics failed to have superior combustion properties when used in rockets designed to achieve 12 pounds or less of thrust compared to the current ABS plastic.