The aim of this essay is to investigate the claims made by Robin Lakoff regarding women’s language, where she claims that women use hedges more than men. The aim of this essay is to investigate whether this statement is true. To put it differently, this essay aims to look at gender differences in the use of modal adverbs as hedges. As a method, a frequency analysis has been conducted, where data from the British National Corpus 2014 (BNC2014) has been used. Since hedging involves various linguistic forms, this essay focuses on the modal adverbs presented by Huddleston and Pullum. The results show that women do use more hedges than men. Regardless, there are not any major dissimilarities across genders. Although there were some findings that supported Lakoff’s claims, there were also some that contradicted her claims.

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(文学) / 甲第18710号 / 文博第668号 / 新制||文||612(附属図書館) / 31661 / 京都大学大学院文学研究科文献文化学専攻 / (主査)教授 家入 葉子, 教授 佐々木 徹, 准教授 廣田 篤彦 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Letters / Kyoto University / DGAM

Orientador: Sonia Maria Lazzarini Cyrino / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Estudos da Linguagem / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-10T16:06:14Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 TescariNeto_Aquiles_M.pdf: 1050741 bytes, checksum: ce0a61b21caa2d194b6fc32fc095c6e2 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2008 / Resumo: O estudo da modalização na literatura lingüística tem excluído do grupo dos advérbios modalizadores os que indicam aspecto habitual (como ¿normalmente¿ e ¿geralmente¿, em português; ¿usually¿ e ¿generally¿, em inglês; ¿tongchang¿, em chinês; ¿sinithos¿, em grego; etc.). Esta dissertação propõe, ao assumir a Teoria dos Especificadores Funcionais, uma abordagem formal de sintaxe adverbial (Cinque, 1999, 2004), que advérbios habituais constituem, nas línguas do mundo, um subgrupo de modalizadores de descomprometimento do falante, como os epistêmicos (¿provavelmente¿), os irrealis (¿talvez¿) e os aléticos de possibilidade (¿possivelmente¿), considerados os representantes dos AdvPs modais. AdvPs habituais, a exemplo dos outros AdvPs modalizadores, tornam a proposição indeterminada em relação a seu estatuto factual (definição de modalidade proposta em Narrog (2005)). Com base na agramaticalidade de sentenças envolvendo, no espaço IP, advérbios habituais e advérbios modalizadores tradicionais, propomos que os advérbios de aspecto habitual são modalizadores inerentes, por reagirem à presença dos outros modalizadores. Para tanto, formulamos a Condição (¿tau¿), que bloquearia as sentenças com itens funcionais de mesmo traço em um XP funcional (CP, IP ou DP estendidos). Evidência adicional para o reconhecimento dos advérbios habituais como modalizadores vem do comportamento também modalizador do núcleo de aspecto habitual, em línguas que o expressam morfofonologicamente, como o grego, o coreano e o basco. Nesse sentido, não apenas os adverbiais aspectuais habituais são modalizadores; o aspecto habitual como um todo instanciaria modalização / Abstract: The study of modality available in general Linguistics literature has excluded from the group of modal adverbs those which indicate habitual aspect, such as ¿normalmente¿ and ¿geralmente¿, in Portuguese; ¿usually¿ and ¿generally¿, in English; ¿tongchang¿, in Chinese; ¿sinithos¿ in Modern Greek, etc. By acknowledging the Funtional-Specifiers Theory, a formal approach to adverbial Syntax (Cinque, 1999, 2004), this thesis proposes the idea that habitual aspect adverbs are indeed modal ones, such as the epistemic (¿probably¿), irrealis (¿perhaps¿) and alethic of possibility (¿possibly¿) adverbs, usually considered as the representatives of modal AdvP classes. Habitual adverbs, as the traditional modal adverbs, make the proposition undetermined with respect to its factual status (Narrog (2005)¿s definition of modality). Based on the ungrammaticality of sentences which have habitual adverbs and traditional modal ones in the extended-IP space, we will propose that habitual aspect AdvPs are inherent modals: they cannot co-occur with another modal adverb, as a consequence of ¿_ (tau) Condition¿, which we have formulated to account for the ungrammatical sentences which have more than one functional item (Spec or Head) in the same functional XP domain (extended CP, IP or DP). Additional evidence for the modal status of habitual aspect adverbs comes from the moda behavior of the habitual aspect head in some languages which express morphophonologically the habitual aspect, such as Modern Greek, Korean and Basque. In this sense, Habitual Aspect as a whole, no only habitual aspect adverbs, would express modality in the languages of the world / Mestrado / Linguistica / Mestre em Linguística

<p>The literature on J. K. Rowling’s Harry Potter is prolific. People have written on various topics dealing with issues such as translation, etymology and diverse areas concerning the language. In this essay, I examine whether linguistic features such as reporting verbs, adverbs of manner and adjectives contribute to the depiction of heroic and villainous characters. Before conducting this research, my assumptions were that there would be a great difference in the value of the words depending on the character they were associated with. I wanted to see if the heroic characters used verbs and adverbs with positive connotations, and the villainous characters verbs and adverbs with negative connotations. I also wanted to know if the adjectives describing the characters could, in themselves, clearly indicate whether a character was a hero or a villain.</p><p>The results of my research suggested that the choice of particular verbs and adverbs contributed only indirectly to the depiction of the characters. Without context, it was not possible to know if the character was a hero or a villain simply by identifying the verbs and adverbs used to describe their speech. By contrast, the choice of particular adjectives did appear to indicate more clearly whether a character was hero or villain. Finally, the results of my research indicated that context, rather than the use of particular linguistic features was often the most important factor in contributing to the portrayal of characters in the novel.</p>

Este estudo se baseou em dados extraídos de um corpus paralelo composto por textos originais em inglês de artigos da Revista National Geographic, suas respectivas traduções publicadas em português na National Geographic Brasil, e os textos traduzidos antes da revisão para publicação. O objetivo foi cotejar os três textos a fim de identificar, na tradução, elementos que promovem a produção de um texto natural e fluente, que reflete o uso mais corrente na língua. Sua inserção no âmbito da lingüística de corpus se deu por essa permitir um estudo lingüístico descritivo e não prescritivo da língua e por se voltar não só para as palavras, estruturas ou usos possíveis na língua mas também o que é provável que ocorra, isto é, a diferença entre o que os falantes podem dizer e o que na verdade dizem. Esse cotejo possibilitou o levantamento de aspectos lingüísticos que afetam a naturalidade e fluência do texto, como a fraseologia típica na língua de chegada, suas colocações naturais, suas próprias expressões fixas, que refletem um modo preferido de se expressar de cada comunidade lingüística. Esses aspectos estão intimamente relacionados à convencionalidade, que abrange aquilo que é consolidado pelo uso, constituindo muitas vezes fonte de dificuldade ao \"tradutor ingênuo\" que pode não perceber que dentre formas possíveis existe aquela mais provável de ocorrer. Dentre os elementos levantados, selecionou-se a tradução dos advérbios terminados em *ly em inglês, nem sempre traduzidos por advérbios terminados em *mente em português, procurando compreender essa opção dentro do âmbito da convencionalidade. Essas opções nem sempre são ilustradas em dicionários, constituindo a pesquisa baseada em corpora, tanto paralelos quanto monolíngües, um recurso valioso ao tradutor seja para mostrar estratégias empregadas por outros tradutores profissionais como para conscientizá-lo de um uso consagrado na língua. / This study was based on data collected from a parallel corpus composed of original texts in English of articles from National Geographic magazine, and their respective translations in Portuguese as published in National Geographic Brazil and the texts translated before their revision for publication. The aim was to compare the three texts in order to identify, in translation, elements that enable the production of a text which sounds natural and fluent, reflecting the current use by the speakers. Corpus Linguistics was chosen as an approach for the research since it allows a descriptive rather than a prescriptive study of the language and is typically concerned not only with what words, structures or uses are possible in a language, but also with what is probable, likely to occur, the difference between what the speakers can say and what they actually say. This comparison brought to light linguistic features which might affect naturalness and fluency of a text, as the typical phraseology in the target-language, its natural collocations and its own fixed expressions, which reflect a preferred way of a community of saying things. These aspects are closely related to conventionality, which encompasses that which is attested by the use, and represent precisely where the difficulties lie for the \"innocent translator\", who might not notice that among a range of possible forms there is one which is more likely to occur. Among the elements found, one was particularly investigated, namely, the translation of adverbs ending in *ly in English , not always translated by adverbs ending in *mente in Portuguese, with a view to understand this option within the idea of conventionality. These options are not frequently displayed in dictionaries, which makes corpus-based research , either using parallel corpora or monolingual corpora, an invaluable resource to translators, in eliciting strategies employed by other professional translators and in bringing awareness to an attested use in language.

Donkey pronouns seem to defy the conventional categories of referential and anaphoric pronouns and hence cannot be analyzed as variables. An orthodox treatment is that donkey pronouns are semantically equivalent to definite descriptions. I argue on the contrary that donkey pronouns can be analyzed as bound variables given a distinct notion of binding. I provide a systematic comparison between the static, description-theoretic approach and Discourse Representation Theory (DRT), a representative of dynamic semantics. By exposing the inadequacy of various descriptivist theories, I motivate and argue that DRT is the better alternative. DRT is superior for being a coherent and flexible analysis of donkey pronouns, a unified analysis of pronouns in general, and an intuitively appealing model of meaning. In addition, I uncover the similarities between the situational descriptivist account and DRT. I show that when fully elaborated, the former turns out to be a notational variant of the latter. I then trace their common problems to the Lewisian assumptions of quantification and conditionals; my proposed solutions suggest non-trivial modifications to and clarifications of the underlying Lewisian framework. / text

The adverb is the indeclinable and not inflective part of speech, who denotes the attribute of act, state, characteristic and different factors of act and state (place, time, reason, purpose and etc.). The adverb has the distinctive word-formation and derivation. Also the adverb has the distinctive accentuation. The accentuation of adverbs takes on a whole new dimension – morphonological dimension. Lithuanian language has the free accent, because of it morphonological features of morphemes determine the place of accent. There is an intensive interest in the frequency of different units of language now. Users has the possibility to use the Electronic Frequency Dictionary now. The base of this master‘s work are adverbs from Common Press Words of the 20th century: Electronic Frequency Dictionary (2004). There were more than 1200 adverbs in Electronic Frequency Dictionary. The derivatives of suffix -ai make about 67% of them. The mostly usable adverbs are these: dar, čia, dabar, daug, gerai, kaip, taip, daugiau, kur, kiek, ten, taip pat, vėl, jau, labai, todėl. The accentual domination of word-formation formants and the features of morphemes of underlying words determine the accentuation of adverbs derivatives. The accentual power of theme of underlying words and flexions and the attraction of flexions determine the accentuation of phrases (these phrases became adverbs) and the accentuation of other single adverbs. The short adverbs have the accent of underlying words.

Tai pirmasis darbas lietuvių kalbotyroje, kuriame sinchroniniu ir diachroniniu aspektu aprašoma semantinė latvių kalbos vietos prieveiksmių struktūra. Darbą sudaro įvadas ir penkios tiriamosios dalys. Pirmojoje dalyje aprašoma semantinė bendrinės latvių kalbos vietos prieveiksmių semantinė struktūra. Antrojoje – bendrinės latvių kalbos vietos prieveiksmių inventorius lyginamas su dviejų latvių kalbos šnektų (Kalnienos ir Svetciemo) vietos prieveiksmių inventoriais. Remiantis gautais rezultatais įrodoma, kad pasirinktų šnektų vietos prieveiksmių semantinė struktūra nesiskiria nuo bendrinės latvių kalbos. Trečiojoje darbo dalyje aprašoma XVI–XVII a. latvių kalbos tekstų vietos prieveiksmių semantinė struktūra. Ketvirtoje dalyje atkuriami rytų baltų prokalbėje vartoti vietos prieveiksmiai ir semantinė jų struktūra. Remiantis rekonstruota rytų baltų prokalbės vietos prieveiksmių sistema ir XVI–XVII a. semantiniu vietos prieveiksmiu aprašu, paskutinėje, penktojoje, darbo dalyje bandoma nustatyti, kokie sistemos pokyčiai įvyko ikirašytiniu laikotarpiu. / This is the first study in Lithuanian linguistics in which semantic structure of Latvian adverbs of place in the synchronic and diachronic aspect is described. Dissertation consists of introduction and five parts of research. The first part semantically systemizes standard Latvian adverbs of place. In the second, inventory of standard Latvian adverbs of place are compared to inventories of adverbs of place of two Latvian subdialects (Svētciems subdialect and Kalniena subdialect). Due to the results, it is proved that semantic structure of adverbs of place of selected subdialects does not differ from standard Latvian. The third part depicts semantic structure of adverbs of place of XVI–XVII c, confirming present system of the language. The fourth part reconstructs adverbs of place used in Proto-East Baltic language and their semantic structure. On the basis of the reconstructed system of adverbs of place of Proto-East Baltic language and semantic inventory of adverbs of place of XVI–XVII c, the last, the fifth part attempts to define what the alterations were in the system in the pre-written period.

Tai pirmasis darbas lietuvių kalbotyroje, kuriame sinchroniniu ir diachroniniu aspektu aprašoma semantinė latvių kalbos vietos prieveiksmių struktūra. Darbą sudaro įvadas ir penkios tiriamosios dalys. Pirmojoje dalyje aprašoma semantinė bendrinės latvių kalbos vietos prieveiksmių semantinė struktūra. Antrojoje – bendrinės latvių kalbos vietos prieveiksmių inventorius lyginamas su dviejų latvių kalbos šnektų (Kalnienos ir Svetciemo) vietos prieveiksmių inventoriais. Remiantis gautais rezultatais įrodoma, kad pasirinktų šnektų vietos prieveiksmių semantinė struktūra nesiskiria nuo bendrinės latvių kalbos. Trečiojoje darbo dalyje aprašoma XVI–XVII a. latvių kalbos tekstų vietos prieveiksmių semantinė struktūra. Ketvirtoje dalyje atkuriami rytų baltų prokalbėje vartoti vietos prieveiksmiai ir semantinė jų struktūra. Remiantis rekonstruota rytų baltų prokalbės vietos prieveiksmių sistema ir XVI–XVII a. semantiniu vietos prieveiksmiu aprašu, paskutinėje, penktojoje, darbo dalyje bandoma nustatyti, kokie sistemos pokyčiai įvyko ikirašytiniu laikotarpiu. / This is the first study in Lithuanian linguistics in which semantic structure of Latvian adverbs of place in the synchronic and diachronic aspect is described. Dissertation consists of introduction and five parts of research. The first part semantically systemizes standard Latvian adverbs of place. In the second, inventory of standard Latvian adverbs of place are compared to inventories of adverbs of place of two Latvian subdialects (Svētciems subdialect and Kalniena subdialect). Due to the results, it is proved that semantic structure of adverbs of place of selected subdialects does not differ from standard Latvian. The third part depicts semantic structure of adverbs of place of XVI–XVII c, confirming present system of the language. The fourth part reconstructs adverbs of place used in Proto-East Baltic language and their semantic structure. On the basis of the reconstructed system of adverbs of place of Proto-East Baltic language and semantic inventory of adverbs of place of XVI–XVII c, the last, the fifth part attempts to define what the alterations were in the system in the pre-written period.

GONDIM, Emanuela Monteiro. Os processos de gramaticalização e de lexicalização dos advérbios em -mente no português dos séculos XIV, XVI e XX. 2014. 111f. – Dissertação (Mestrado) – Universidade Federal do Ceará, Departamento de Letras Vernáculas, Programa de Pós-graduação em Linguística, Fortaleza (CE), 2014. / Submitted by Márcia Araújo (marcia_m_bezerra@yahoo.com.br) on 2014-08-27T14:46:36Z No. of bitstreams: 1 2014_dis_emgondim.pdf: 984189 bytes, checksum: a3dd9daeff53c2834c7f4fa52bcc5997 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Márcia Araújo(marcia_m_bezerra@yahoo.com.br) on 2014-08-27T14:58:33Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 2014_dis_emgondim.pdf: 984189 bytes, checksum: a3dd9daeff53c2834c7f4fa52bcc5997 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2014-08-27T14:58:33Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 2014_dis_emgondim.pdf: 984189 bytes, checksum: a3dd9daeff53c2834c7f4fa52bcc5997 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014 / In this work, we perform a diachronic study of adverbs ending in -mente in the Portuguese of 14th, 16th and 20th centuries, in order to investigate the grammaticalization and lexicalization processes such adverbs have been experiencing. To this end, we analyzed constructions ending in -mente from four corpora, which consists of the representative of historiographical prose following texts: Crônica Geral de Espanha (CGE), from 14th century;História da Província de Santa Cruz (HPSC) and Da Monarquia Lusitana (ML), from 16th century, and História do Brasil (HB), from 20th century. Based on Lehmann (2002), who argues that grammaticalization and lexicalization processes are not opposite but complementary, since they occur in parallel, we evaluated quantitatively and qualitatively the roles played by these adverbs and the degree of compositionality they present in every period we analyzed. We concluded that, as time has gone by, adverbs ending in -mente have become decreasingly compositional and have expanded their functions progressively. However, these adverbs have concluded neither of these processes yet, once they still cannot be taken as lexicalizated words, since the adverb’s adjectival base still appears predominantly transparent even in the most recent period; and still hold, in 20th century, mostly semantic functions. / Neste trabalho, pretendemos fazer um estudo diacrônico dos advérbios em –mente no português dos séculos XIV, XVI e XX, a fim de investigar os processos de gramaticalização e lexicalização pelos quais tais advérbios vêm passando. Para tanto, analisamos as construções em -mente em quatro corpora, constituídos pelos seguintes textos representativos da prosa historiográfica: Crônica Geral de Espanha (CGE), do século XIV; História da Província de Santa Cruz (HPSC) e Da Monarquia Lusitana (ML), do século XVI e História do Brasil (HB), do século XX. Calcados em Lehmann (2002), que defende que os processos de gramaticalização e lexicalização não são opostos e sim complementares, vez que ocorrem em paralelo, avaliamos quantitativa e qualitativamente as funções exercidas por esses advérbios e o grau de composicionalidade que apresentam em todos os períodos analisados. Chegamos à conclusão de que, com o passar do tempo, os advérbios em –mente estão se tornando cada vez menos composicionais e expandindo cada vez mais suas funções. Todavia ainda não concluíram nenhum dos dois processos, vez que ainda não podem ser tomados como palavras idiomatizadas, já que a base adjetiva do advérbio ainda se mostra, mesmo no período mais recente, predominantemente transparente; e ainda exercem, no século XX, predominantemente funções semânticas.